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Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2008 with funding from
Microsoft Corporation

http://www. archive.org/details/britishinsectsgeO0Owestuoft

THE ABBEY NATURE BOOKS
Edited by W. PERCIVAL WESTELL, F.L.S.

BRITISH INSECTS
(General)

THE ABBEY NATURE BOOKS
Coloured Plates and many Black and White Illustrations.

BRITISH MAMMALS,

BRITISH BIRDS (Double Volume).

BRITISH REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS, AND FRESH-
WATER FISHES,

BRITISH BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS,

BRITISH INSECTS (General),

CHAPMAN & DODD, Ltd., 66 Great Queen St., London,
W.C.2.

PLaTE |

BriTIsH’ INSECTS

1. Soldier Beetle. 2. Demoiselle Dragon Fly. 3. Rose Chafer Beetle.
4. Great Green Grasshoppcr. 5. Great Brown Water Peetle.
6. Violet Ground Beetle.

BRITISH INSECTS
(General)

BY
W. PERCIVAL WESTELL, F.L.S.

ILLUSTRATED BY
DORIS MEYER

CHAPMAN & DODD, LTD.

mn

t Aft RIS9

rene Wier &

Cahill & Co., Ltd., London, Dublin and Drogheda.

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

WHEN it is pointed out that there are over one hundred
and seventy different species of Caddis Flies in Britain
alone, and several thousands of species of Ichneumons,
the difficulty of compressing into one modest volume
even a brief survey of British Insect Life will be realised.
Whilst the members of the Order Lepidoptera (Butter-
flies and Moths) have been accorded a volume of their
own,* and thus relieved the congestion somewhat, there
remained a mighty host to contend with in the general
insecta, and it is with representatives of these that this
fifth volume is concerned. It has been the author’s
aim to treat his subject more or less scientifically, and
yet not be dry-as-dust, as a book on insect-life must,
to be of any useful service, include scientific names,
orders, families, and the rest. Popular books on these
insect-marvels, whilst eminently readable, are of little
use for identification or reference, and the idea has been
to strike a happy medium by producing a tome that
shall make a direct appeal to all Nature lovers, and yet
have some value from the point of view already men-
tioned. As it stands, it is claimed to be the most com-
prehensive little volume yet published on British Insects

* Volume IV, of “‘ The Abbey Nature Books.”

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

—a multum-in-parvo—and it is hoped that, as a result,
these myriads of creatures will receive a greater share of
attention than has heretofore been accorded them. It
should be pointed out that the classification of Insects
is being constantly altered, and whilst to-day the Orders
herein included are mostly accepted, to-morrow may see
the Fleas, for example, taken out of the Diptera, and
placed elsewhere. There seems no finality, partly
because we are only gradually acquiring sufficient in-
formation for dealing with them, and many puzzles still
exist. ‘The aim has been to take the ten chief Orders of
Insects represented in Britain, and to deal with them
accordingly. ‘The Author has largely followed the
“‘ Guide to the Exhibited Series of Insects in the Depart-
ment of Entomology ” at the British Museum (Natural
History), and he has to acknowledge the courtesy of the
Trustees of that wonderful Institution in loaning blocks
OL Figs. 1,2, 3,4; El, 125 135 245 275.315 430G4e a5ene.
and 38, and to Mr. Ray Palmer, F.E.S., of Letchworth
Museum, for helpful assistance in classification. Ack-
nowledgment is also made of the use, as a work of re-
ference, of the Author’s recently published collaborative
treatise: ‘‘ Pests of the Garden and Orchard, Farm and
Forest”? (Palmer and Westell, Drane, Nov. 1922).

CONTENTS

Page
INTRODUCTION ; ; : 3 ° . : I
I. ORpDER APTERA, OR SPRING-TAILS AND BRISTLE-
‘TAILS :
Collembola, or Spring-Tails
Thysanura, or Bristle-Tails . ‘ : See
II. OrbDER MALLOPHAGA, OR BIRDAND BITING LICE . 14

III. OrpER ORTHOPTERA, OR EARWIGS, COCKROACHES,

CRICKETS, AND GRASSHOPPERS ; Meer 1 e
Forficulide, or Earwigs : : ; ie Stae
Blattide,or Cockroaches. : a Ea 3)
Gryllide, or Crickets . : i Rig

Phasgonuride, or Long-Horned OE) 25
Locustide, or Short-Horned Grasshoppers. 25

IV. OrpDER RHYNCHOTA, OR Bucs, FROTH-FLIEs,
APHIDS, AND SCALE-INSECTS . ; 728
Hemiptera,or Bugs. : 28
Homoptera, or Froth-Flies, Aphids, and Seals
Insects . : : 3 ; P =). 28

CONTENTS

V. ORbDER COLEOPTERA, OR BEETLES.

Vill

Ctcindelida, or Tiger Beetles

Carabidae, or Carnivorous Ground Beetles
Gyrinida, or Whirligig Beetles

Dytiscide, or Carnivorous Water Beetles.

Hydrophilide, or Vegetable Feeding Water

Beetles . : .
Staphylinide, or Rove Beetles
Silphide, or Carrion Beetles.
Coccinellide, or Ladybird Beetles .
Byturid@, or Raspberry Beetles, &c.

Scarabaida, or Chafer and Dor Beetles, &c.

Lucanida, or Stag Beetles :
Anobitde, or Death-Watch Beetles, &c. .
Lampyrida, or Glow-Worm Beetles, &c.
Telephorida, or Soldier and Sailor Beetles
Elateride, or Click Beetles

Meloida, or Oil Beetles

Curculionidae, or Weevils

Scolytide, or Bark Beetles 5
Cerambycide, or Wood-Boring Beetles .
Bruchida, or Pea and Bean Beetles, &c. .
Chrysomelida, or Leaf-Eating Beetles

Tenebrionida, or Grain Eating Beetles, &c.

Blaptida, or Cellar Beetles .

Page
38
38
39
40
41

43
43
44
45
46
46
48
50
51
52
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
58
59

CONTENTS

Page

Cassidida, or Tortoise Beetles ‘ ’ 2 GO

VI. ORrpreR NEUROPTERA, OR NERVE-WINGED INSECTS. 60
Corrodentia, or Book Lice . ‘ P Ee BOY
Plecoptera, or Stone Flies . ‘ . Bes 2

Sialida, or Alder Flies ‘ ‘ owe
Planipennia, or Scorpion Flies aa Lacewings 64.
Ephemeroptera, or May Flies. : : aio OB
Odonata, or Dragon Flies. : : iy, 10S

VII. OrpbeR TRICHOPTERA, OR CADDIS FLIES. Moke fe

VIII. Onrpber LEPIDOPTERA, OR BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS = 75

(These are only included here so as to complete the ten
chief Orders of British Insects, the Butterflies and Moths
having been accorded a separate Volume to themselves in
Book IV.)

IX. Orpber Diprera, or Fires, Mosquitoes, MIDGES,

AND FLEAS . : : ‘ : ane
Pulicide, or Fleas ; ; ; aT
Cecidomyiide, or Gall Midges : : eee 7
Bibionide, or Dung Flies. : : “Ol
Culicida, or Mosquitoes (Gnats) . : a 7)
Tipulide, or Crane Flies. : : Shy Od

Syrphide, or Hover Flies. : 3 RUE <3

CONTENTS

Page
Tachinidae, or Parasitic Flies. : : et ee
Muscide, or House Flies, &c 2 : maa Pe
stride, or Bot Flies . 3 Baiey
Hippoboscide, or Mammal and Bird F lies ~ aed
Chironomide, or Midges : , 2 85
Tabanida, or Gad Flies : ; ; ho aie
Bombylide, or Humble Bee Flies . : ~ 286

X. ORDER HYMENOPTERA, OR ANTS, BEES, Wasps,
SAW-FLIES, ICHNEUMONS, AND OTHERS . 87

Heterogyna, or Social Ants . : : <i) eg
Fossores, or Solitary Ants . : é 20g
Diploptera, or Wasps . ; ; ; o's a
Anthophila, or Bees. ; ; E ae
Chryside, or Ruby Wasps . i : “QO
Tenthredinida, or Saw-F lies. : é en fo
Cynipide, or Gall-Wasps . ; : ; BO
Ichneumonidae, or Ichneumon Flies : - POM

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Coloured Plate I. 1, SOLDIER BEETLE. 2, DEMOISELLE
DRAGON-FLY. 3, ROSE CHAFER BEETLE. 4,
GREAT GREEN GRASSHOPPER. 5, GREAT BROWN
WaTER BEETLE. 6, VIOLET GROUND BEETLE

Coloured Plate II.

OI AnAwW DN

Frontispiece

1, YELLOW-BANDED HUMBLE BEE.

2, LACEWING FLy. 3, HORNET. 4, GIANT

ELM BARK BEETLE

TAILED SAw-FLy ’ : Facing Page 60
Page

SprRING-TalL (Greatly enlarged) 9
BRISTLE-TaIL (Enlarged seven times) . II
FisH-INsect (Enlarged six times) 13
Doc Louse (Enlarged thirty-six times) 15
CocKROACH 20
MOLE CRICKET . 22
House CRICKET . 24
WATER BOATMAN a1
WATER SCORPION j 32
. Larva OF WATER SCORPION 32
DeviL’s CoAcH Horse BEETLE 40
GREAT BROWN WATER BEETLE (Larva) 42
” ” ” ” (Pupa) 42

‘ _ ei ,», (Imago) 42
BURYING BEETLE : 44
COCKCHAFER 47
Dor BEETLE 48
StaG BEETLE ‘ : 49
GLow-WorM BEETLE (Female) 51
OL BEETLE 53

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig.21. Musk BreTLe

22. CELLAR BEETLE .

23. ALDER FLy (Imago)

24. sy Eee, AES enlarged)

25. SCORPION FLY

26. Lacewinc FLy .

27, Mayrty (Nymph)

28. a (Imago)

29. HoORSE-STINGER .

30. GREAT DRAGON FLy . : :
31. Cappis Fiy (Larva. Twice natural size)
32. Es 3 (image);

33. COMMON FLEa (Egg).

34. cs »» (Larva)
35: ” ” (Pupa)
36. a », (Imago)

(Figs. 33 to 36 enlarged twenty times).
37. COMMON GNAT
38. Bitinc Mipce (Greatly arilacsed)
39. AUTUMNAL BREEZE FLY :
40. HuMBLE BEE FLY
41. Woop Ant (Male)
42. HORNET
43. Lear-CUTTER BEE
44. Honey Bee (Queen) .
45. »” ” (Drone) c
MO.) et ag) CW OLREE)
47. Rusy Wasp
48. GranT-TaILeD Saw- FLy (renal
49. GOOSEBERRY SAW-FLY

BRITISH INSECTS
(GENERAL)

Introduction.—The classification of the Insecta—
even if attention is restricted to British species—is so
often changed, and various methods adopted, by dif-
ferent systematists, that it is difficult to set out with
any degree of certainty a general rule that can be safely
followed. For the purpose of this volume, however, it
will be sufficient if we classify the insects with which
we are here concerned under 'Ten Orders, commencing
with the Bristle-Tails and Spring-Tails included in the
Order Aptera, and concluding with the highly-organised
Ants, Bees, and Wasps, which find a place in the Order
Hymenoptera.

In the ten Orders of Insects which are represented in
this, and its companion volume: “ British Butterflies
and Moths,” it is safe to assert that over seventeen
thousand species are inhabitants of our own country,
and whilst it is quite impossible to include more than a
fraction of these in our present survey, it will perhaps
afford interest if we set out the estimated number of
British species in each Order, thus :—Aptera 200 species ;

1

BRITISH INSECTS

Coleoptera 3,265 species ; Diptera 4,000 species ; Hyme-
noptera 5,000 species; Lepidoptera 2,060 species ;
Mallophaga 150 species; Neuroptera 228 species ;
Orthoptera 42 species; Rhynchota 1,500 species; and
Trichoptera 174 species, or, approximately, some 17,000
species in all. I have purposely arranged the foregoing
in alphabetical order, but to carry out one of the aims
of this series of Abbey Nature Books further, namely, to
convey some idea of the classification of British Animal
Life, it will be as well to follow up the alphabetical
sequence above given with the scientific one, indicating
briefly the kinds of insects each of the Ten Orders
contains, thus :—

Order I (Aptera) is made up of the Bristle-Tails and
Spring-Tails, which are wingless insects passing through
no metamorphoses, the young (as in Spiders) resembling
the adult except in size. Other characteristics are re-
ferred to later, where we consider more fully the general
life-histories of the different species accorded a place in
this introductory handbook.

Order II (Mallophaga) consists of Bird and Biting
Lice, which, to say the least, are not likely to be very
popularly regarded. These also are wingless creatures
which, as in the Aptera, undergo very little change in the
progress to maturity.

Order III (Orthoptera) includes Cockroaches (so often
erroneously referred to as “‘ Black Beetles ’’), Crickets,
Earwigs, and Grasshoppers, and it may here be men-

tioned that the curious Praying Mantis which adopts
2

INTRODUCTION

such a reverential attitude, and the ravenous Mosquito
of other lands than ours, also belong to this important
Order.

Order IV (Rhynchota) has among its members the
detestable Bed Bug (Cimex lectularius); those familiar
little tenants of our ponds and streams, the Water Boat-
man and Water Scorpion ; the active little Frog Hopper
whose frothy secretion is such a feature of our country-
side when Summer returns again; the amazing Aphis,
or Green Fly ; the Apple Sucker, and the Scale Insects.
All these undergo an incomplete metamorphosis, and it
may be mentioned that the Cicadas, whose stridulating
music is such a feature of the regions they inhabit abroad,
and the Lantern Flies, also find a place in this fourth
Order, although unrepresented in Britain.

Order V (Coleoptera) is made up of Sheath-Winged
Insects, or Beetles, some large (as in the Great Water
and Stag Beetles), others so small as almost to escape
detection, and yet of perfect mechanism throughout,
and all undergoing a complete metamorphosis. The
useful Ladybirds are included among these coleopterous
insects, and there are several other familiar representa-
tives of which we have something to relate hereafter.

Order VI (Neuroptera) may be conveniently divided
into six Sub-Orders as follows :—

1. Corrodentia, (Book Lice.)
2. Plecoptera, (Stone Flies.)
3. Stalida, (Alder Flies.)

ie)

BRITISH INSECTS

4. Planipennia, (Lacewing, Scorpion, and Snake
Flies.)

5. Ephemeroptera, (Mayflies.)

6. Odonata, (Dragon Flies).

Order VII (Trichoptera) includes the Caddis Flies
whose larvze were used by us as bait for angling in some
silvern stream, or favourite wayside pond, “‘ when we
were boys together.”

Order VIII (Lepidoptera), as those who possess the
fourth volume in this Series will know, embraces the
Butterflies and Moths specially dealt with in the pre-
ceding book.

Order IX (Diptera) is made up of Fleas, Flies, Midges,
and Mosquitoes, and is an Order capable of almost
indefinite extension, in so far as adding to the number of
species is concerned, owing to the fewness of the students
who concentrate attention upon this highly important
branch of Entomology, and

Order X (Hymenoptera) has, as its representatives, Ants,
Bees, Wasps, Saw Flies, Ichneumons, and Gall-Wasps.

The many interesting phases through which these
tenants of the world of insect-life pass is impossible
of lengthy consideration, and they are more conveniently
dealt with under their respective headings in the pages
which follow. A passing reference need only be made
to the beauty of some, and the repulsive appearance of
others. Some species among these insect-folk live more
or less an active aquatic life, others tenant the air, others
again are ground-surface dwellers, and others pursue
4

INTRODUCTION

their life buried beneath the soil. And there are others
again which, being parasites, pass their existence within
the body of another animal. Some are obnoxious pests
to plant or other forms of life, many are of distinct
service in the economy of Nature. Some are indis-
pensable agents in the pollination and fertilisation of
flowers, others are detestable disseminators of disease.
There are those which perform useful work as scavengers
and sanitary-inspectors, removers (and consumers !) of
filth, there are others whose palate is best suited to sweet
and tasty provender. There are represented among
insects both solitary and social workers. ‘Those coming
under the last-named head exhibit wonderful traits of
co-partnership and co-operation, founding colonies whose
laws and regulations are a striking testimony as to the
intelligence these silent folk possess. Some perform
their change from egg to perfect insect without much
loss of time, others are well content to allow the operation
to drag on almost indefinitely, until the hour when the
all-important period of final emergence can be no longer
delayed, and it is highly essential that the future destiny
of the race shall be assured. Some, as has already been
shown, are wingless, others possess the necessary organs
of flight as soon as the adult state is reached, and there
are others again who only enjoy the possession of flight-
appendages for a short time, so as to enable them to
travel from one place to another and there enjoy their
little day. Some burrow, crawl, creep, fly, hop or jump,
others swim with ease and facility, feathering their

5

BRITISH INSECTS

“oars”? in such a way as would make an Oxford or
Cambridge freshman green with envy. Some love the
muddy bottom of a sunlit pond, others revel in the
thyme-covered slopes of a dry hillside. Some are fond
of the warmth of the life-giving sun, others, like Dio-
genes of old, pass their time lurking in cold, dark places.
The quick movements of some of these gay little crea-
tures will, without much effort, be known to all, the
laborious progression of others, and their consequent
attendant devices for protection, will be equally familiar
to the veriest tyro. The abnormal number of eggs
produced, so as to allow for waste, accident, loss through
enemies and other causes, is not the least feature of
interest, and the clever ruses that are adopted for hiding
their productions in a suitable environment need only
be mentioned in passing. ‘This great world of insect-
life which populates earth, air, and water, invading
all the elements, inimical to the interests of human
existence here, carrying out all unconsciously important
missions there, is full of interest and wonder. If all
that were born came to maturity, if the wonderful law
of give-and-take, if the intricate and yet delicate balance
of Nature was not properly adjusted, this very world
of insect-life would, in a short time, make human life
well-nigh, if not quite, impossible. Every green thing
would soon disappear, all, all would be lost, and in a way
the super-wonder of the whole fabric of this branch of
Natural Science may be stated to be, not so much per-

haps the fascinating life-stories that are unfolded, but
6

INTRODUCTION

the marvellous provisions that have been made for
keeping at bay those species whose misdeeds, unless
thus checked, would spell disaster not only for our-
selves, but for other earth-creatures who share with us
all a common heritage in the wonder-world through
which we are destined to pass and play no unimportant
part.

Of the remote ancestry of these insect-folk their fossil
remains testify, and in the course of a most illuminating
discourse on the age of insects, Professor G. H. Car-
penter writes :—‘‘ We often take mountains as emblems
of age, and speak of the ‘ everlasting hills.’ The most
advanced orders of insects are older than the chalk of
the southern English downs, while the early winged
insects flitted by the shores of the lakes wherein the
grits and sandstones of the Kerry Rocks gathered frag-
ment by fragment. For the primitive wingless insects
we must look at least to the time when by accumulation
of coral, and the ash and lava of old volcanos, the rocks
of Snowdon were being slowly formed on the bed of
the Primary Sea, and the oldest rocks of the Western
Highlands of Scotland will hardly carry us back to the
primeval arthropods. We walk over the hills rousing
the Bee from the flower, or the Dragon Fly from the
rushes. The life of each individual insect lasts but for
a few days, or months, or years. Yet these creatures
are the latest links in a long chain of life which reaches
back to a time before the mountain whereon they dwell
was brought forth. ‘To unobservant eyes the landscape

lod

f

BRITISH INSECTS

seems enduring, but study of its features shows that it
changes from age to age, changes even more rapidly
than the insect-types which adorn it. Yet through the
long periods of the earth’s history the insects have been
changing too; and the form of their bodies, and the
history of their growth, teach us how to trace in some
degree the wondrous unfolding of their branch of the
great tree of life.” (Insects, their Structure and Life.)

We may now proceed to consider the various species
of insects included in each of the ten Orders already
scheduled, concentrating chief attention upon those
which are most likely to come under the reader’s survey.

ORDER I. APTERA, OR SPRING-TAILS AND
BRISTLE-TAILS

Although, as has already been stated, there are some
two hundred British species in the first order of insects
with which we are here concerned, only the specialist is
interested in the more intimate details connected with
them, as, in the great world of insect-life, it is necessary
to specialise in certain groups in order to work out the
life-histories of the different species to any advantage.
It need only be mentioned, therefore, that, as a rule, the
Aptera are divided into two sub-orders, known as Col-
8

THE SPRING-TAILS

lembola and Thysanura, the former containing the Spring-
Tails, and the latter the Bristle-Tails.
The Spring-Tails (Fig. 1) are often discovered in

Fig. 1, Spring-Tail. (Greatly Enlarged.)

decaying vegetable matter, by the banks of ponds, on
the surface of stagnant water, and on herbage by hedge-
9

BRITISH INSECTS

row or wayside. ‘They have small, soft bodies, and
many of the species possess scales which, it is interesting
to note, closely resemble those found upon the wings
of butterflies. The species shown in the illustration is
Papirius. ‘There is at least one species, known by the
scientific name of Isotoma fimetaria, which is constructed
in such a way that it can adapt itself so as to live on
land, as well as on the surface of, and under, water.
The popular name of Spring-Tail has been acquired
by reason of the springing, or leaping, powers these
creatures possess, the feat being carried out by means
of a forked apparatus situate upon the under part of the
body as shown in the lower specimen illustrated in
Fig. 1. Not all have this habit, or power, but those
that do will doubtless attract attention when discovered.
We are now employing insects to help in the work of
the world, and Sewage Works are kept in order by the
aid of one of these Spring-Tails, as it feeds on decaying
matter which is, it is said, consumed at the rate of four
pounds per week per individual insect.

The sewage filters become choked with a jelly-like
matter, and large sums of money have been spent in
clearing them, but now the Spring-Tail does the job for
us, and incidentally saves the ratepayers.

We are now learning that the best way of fighting
insect pests is to set other insects to eat them. Indeed,
if insects ceased destroying one another, they would
multiply so rapidly that the world would soon become
unfit for human habitation.

10

THE BRISTLE-TAILS

But by employing insect labour we may eventually
get the upper hand of all these devastating pests, and
also be spared many unpleasant tasks.

.
J i
y Ex *
AN U)\\ "=
ay. Pxx
A x
ZAR aN
2 aS d
{V\ K-
ft Nt.
AAK iS

Fig. 2, Bristle-Tail. (Enlarged seven times.)

The Thysanura, or Bristle-Tails, (Fig. 2) are apparently
so-called because of the bristly appendages borne upon
11

BRITISH INSECTS

the extremity of the body. ‘The long, outward-spread
antennz protruding from the head, and the double
“tail” at the other end, together with the prominent
segments of the body, go to make up a most interesting
creature, though, truth to tell, it is seen to best advan-
tage when examined under a lens, being by no means
of large proportions as has already been hinted earlier
on. ‘These Bristle-Tails are split up into four families,
and although they differ a great deal in appearance and
structure, we need not pursue the matter here, except
to point out that in Campodea staphylinus (see Fig. 2,
the species we had in mind when giving a general de-
scription above), we meet with what is stated to be
‘perhaps the most primitive of all insects.” It is of
small size, being about a quarter of an inch in length,
almost white in colour, and of very active disposition.
It may be found in garden and other refuse.

A representative of another family, namely, Japyx
solifugus, more or less resembles the species just de-
scribed, except that the “‘ bristle-tail”’ is replaced with
incurved forceps, or pincers, which strikingly remind
one of those possessed by the more familiar Earwig.
A member of another family of the Sub-Order Thysa-
nura, is Lepisma saccharina, commonly known as the
Fish Insect because it is covered with silvery-grey scales
(Fig. 3). In spite of its fanciful association with aquatic
life, the Fish Insect is a tenant of much drier situations
than are affected by members of the finny tribe, as it
resorts to warehouses, clothes presses, libraries, and
12

THE FISH-INSECT

other “dry” places, and, on occasions, perpetrates

Fig. 3, Fish-Insect. (Enlarged six times.)

13

BRITISH INSECTS

good deal of harm by gnawing the surface of old prints,
books, and other papers. It is of larger size than the
first species selected for mention (Campodea), having a
broader, three-segmented thorax, much longer antenne,
and, in addition to a pair of appendages on either side
of the extremity of the abdomen, Lepisma has a centre
piece to its “ tail’? which completes a trident, and also
four smaller bristles towards the extremity, two placed
on either side.

We may conclude our brief reference to the members
of this first Order of insects by drawing attention to an
allied species which is really of an ornamental descrip-
tion, being biscuit colour, attractively marked with
black and grey scales. It measures about half an inch
in length, and although of retiring habits it does some-
times occur in very large numbers in warm places, such
as a bakehouse. So much so, indeed, that, although
to the scientist this creature is known as Thermophila
furnorum, to those who are brought into contact with it
in bakeries, it goes by the name of “‘ Baker’s Brat.”

ORDER II. MALLOPHAGA, OR BIRD AND
BITING LICE

The average individual will doubtless be somewhat
alarmed to know that there are at least one hundred and
14

BIRD AND BITING LICE

fifty species of these insects on the British list, but will
heave a sigh of relief when told that, if cleanliness is
established, he is not likely to be brought into too in-
timate terms of acquaintance with any of them! As
with the Aptera, these wingless insects (Fig. 4) are of

Fig. 4, Dog Louse. (Enlarged thirty-six times.)

small proportions, having a flat, hairy body, with a large
free head. The powerful mandibles with which the
obnoxious little “‘ beast’? is armed, are situate in a
cavity underneath the head, and the legs are attached
to the sides of the body-segments. ‘There may be one,
or even two claws, on the extremity of the two-jointed
legs. ‘The species shown in Fig. 4 is Trichodectes latus
(Dog Louse). Fortunately for human beings the greater

15

BRITISH INSECTS

number of these Lice devote their chief attention to
birds, and it used to be a common supposition in Gilbert
White’s time that the possession of a supply of these
parasites was helpful to such birds as Martins and Swal-
lows, so that, when pressed for food during migration,
these familiar harbingers of Summer would find an
abundant food-supply close at hand. Dogs, sheep,
and other mammals are also troubled with representa-
tives of these distressing parasites, and a large number
which we have examined under a microscope, secure
from carrying out their distasteful practises, have caused
intense interest by reason of their curious facial ex-
pressions, to say nothing of their wonder of form and
structure.

ORDER III. ORTHOPTERA, OR EARWIGS,
COCKROACHES, CRICKETS AND GRASS-
HOPPERS

The interesting series of insects included in the Order
Orthoptera are divided into several families, the members
of which have distinguishing characteristics, such as
three, four, or five-jointed legs ; legs formed for jump-
ing, leaping, running, seizing, or walking, and long, or
not very long, antenne.

16

THE COMMON EARWIG

The Common Earwig (Forficula auricularia) represents
the Family Forficulide, and is one of five species found
in Britain, another species, known as Labia minor, or
Lesser Earwig, being much less noticeable than the
more familiar insect known to everyone. The smaller
species appears to resort to manure heaps. Three of
the chief features connected with the Earwig—and here-
after reference is only made to F. auricularia—are the
quick power of movement, the possession of incurved
appendages attached to the hind part of the body, and
the manner in which—unlike the majority of insects—
the young are cared for, the rule among the inhabitants
of the insect-world being to produce a large number of
eggs, and to leave their hatching and future welfare to
chance, though provision is often, if not always made,
with regard to a suitable environment in which the
larvee may find themselves when hatched, and a good
food-supply near at hand. Mother Earwig, as a matter
of fact, is quite a model parent, and sets a remarkable
example to others of the insect-race who, as has been
stated, seem content with their efforts to perpetuate
their species when once the eggs have been deposited.
The female Earwig actually sits upon and helps to in-
cubate her eggs, and when hatched the young closely
resemble their parents. Her strong jaws at one end
and formidable pincers at the other, are excellent weapons
of defence should an enemy approach. The young
soon require guidance and protection, and this the
Mother Earwig patiently, if not lovingly, bestows. It

1%

BRITISH INSECTS

is one of the most interesting maternal instincts to wit-
ness this solicitude of the Earwig for her young, espe-
cially in this great world of insect-life where the inex-
perienced person would least expect to find it. The
Earwig, too, is notorious because of its supposed habit
of creeping into the human ear, and the formidable use
to which it is said to put its fearsome-looking forceps.
Let it be said that this insect is far too particular as to
its retreat to allow itself, unless by accident or unforseen
circumstance, to enter one’s ear, and the scorpion-like
act of turning up its “tail,” as if to strike or nip, is
only carried out so as to enable the creature to fold away
its small, delicate wings. Some species of Earwigs
do not have wings, but our familiar garden tenant has
these appendages, the front pair, as a rule, being modi-
fied into elytra, or wing-cases, leathery in texture, and
the softer hind pair being folded beneath, or just over-
lapping, the former. The name Earwig should, as a
matter of fact, be Earwing, and it was so-called in days
gone by because of the resemblance of the shape of the
wing to our own aural orifice. The small spherical
eggs are semi-transparent, and of hard texture. Being
so small, they are rarely discovered, but they may be
found in little groups buried beneath the ground or
under a stone. Most Earwigs are brown, red, or yellow
in colour, our own common species having, as is well
known, a coat of mail of the former when in the adult
state. During its transformation stage, it is first white,
then perhaps piebald, as the stronger colour appears
18

THE COMMON EARWIG

and fuller development takes place, and finally choco-
late-brown. When disturbed below ground in early
Spring, the lighter-coloured, immature specimens may
be seen. The forceps of the male are more fully de-
veloped than in his mate, and he has nine segments,
instead of seven, on the abdomen. That the Earwig
is a garden enemy is undoubted, and in some years the
large numbers that appear are such that a battle-roval
must be waged against them. It is largely a vege-
tarian, and has a habit of eating away the blossoms of
our favourite flowers and other plant-parts, but it is
said, on good authority, to be of some service in feeding
upon the larva and pupa of insects, and thus helping
to keep in check other obnoxious pests. The in-
fallible habit of running to cover results in the easy
capture of these garden tenants by placing an inverted
flower-pot, hollow rod, bunch of hay or straw, or other
trap of this kind near the plants visited, and dealing
with the insects captured the succeeding morning, as
they appear to carry out their chief depredations at
dark, and may be trapped during the silence of the
midnight-watch. ‘They do not like paraffin, and we
have known a ring of this oil, smeared on the ground all
round a house, to effectually keep at bay a plague of
these insects which previously had a habit of invading
the homestead, and being found in hair brushes, beds,
and other unlikely and unwelcome places. We pass
by those very remarkable creatures popularly known
as Stick-Insects (Family Phasmide), but which can be

19

BRITISH INSECTS

highly recommended as “ pets,” and the Mantids
(Family Mantide), and this brings us to the Cock-
roaches, which constitute the Family Blattide. Some
species of Cockroaches have wings, others are wingless
in both sexes. In others again, as in our own Common
Cockroach (Blatta orientalis, Fig. 5) only the male has

flight appendages. The flat, dark, chocolate-coloured
body and the long antenne of this so-called “ Black
Beetle” are well known. It resorts to houses (especially
bakehouses and similar warm places), and comes from its
hiding at night. Other kinds are found along the
countryside far removed from habitations, but are much
smaller in size. It need hardly be pointed out that,
belonging to the Orthoptera, they are not Beetles (Coleop-
tera) and although some bear a strong resemblance
to the latter, it is incorrect to classify, or refer to them
as such. The female Cockroach has a capsule, or

purse, on the extremity of her body, and in this recep-
20

THE COCKROACH

tacle she carries her eggs, these being wonderfully
arranged and protected. In at least one foreign species
(Panesthia javanica), it is believed that the young are
actually produced alive, and in another, the insect has
the habit of rolling into a tight-fitting ball similar to the
well-known Wood Louse. Young Cockroaches are at
first whitish in colour, and, although resembling their
parents, they do not come to maturity until, as with
true larve, they have cast their skins several times.
This insect was originally introduced into Britain from
Asia and the Levant, probably brought over on some
homeward-bound vessel, and it has found the condi-
tions admirably suited to its requirements. In the
household the Cockroach is not a desirable inmate as,
when it comes into contact with food—its diet is omni-
vorous and nothing comes amiss to it—it taints it with a
peculiar foetid odour. It will even devour leather, and
whilst a great deal cannot be said in its favour, it is,
perhaps, one of Nature’s scavengers, and as a native of
countries less sanitary than our own, it is likely that it
fulfils no unimportant place where humans fail to act.
It is said that, when the conditions become unsuitable,
these creatures will all leave one house for another in
a body. The Hedgehog is stated to be a good Cock-
roach-catcher, but I have never put this to the test, not
having as lodgers any of the insects with which to ex-
periment. I best remember these unwelcome guests as
tenanting my old home at St. Albans (one of the old
coaching inns), as they do not seem to care for new

21

BRITISH INSECTS

houses as for old. So far we have been concerned with
members of the Order Orthoptera which move quickly
by a crawling or running movement, but in the Family
Gryllide, or Criekets, we come to the first section of
those which resort to hopping, jumping, or leaping.
These insects have long, thin antennez, or feelers, and
two, or at most three-jointed, legs. Almost all the
Crickets are dressed in a sober coat of brownish, or horn
colour, and the majority of them resort to burrowing,
or hiding under, or in, any favourable places. ‘The

Fig 6.

Mole Cricket

rarer Mole Cricket (Gryllotalpa, Fig. 6), has acquired
its English Christian name because of its front pair of
legs being used for the same purpose as those of the
2

THE HOUSE CRICKET

better-known fur-clad mammal (the Mole), namely, for
burrowing. ‘This species is largely carnivorous. ‘The
curious clicking, or chirping, noise made by the familiar
House Cricket (Gryllus domesticus), is caused by the
male rubbing one wing over the other in the same way
as its cousin, the Grasshopper. It is said to be a signal
to the female. When at rest, the wings are held in a
horizontal position, and protrude beyond the body in
the male. On the end of the female’s body there is
an ovipositor, with which a hole is drilled, and then an
egg is laid. This happens about midsummer, and
as many as 200 to 300 eggs are deposited by one female.
The succeeding Winter is passed in the larval state,
the adult form not being attained until the first year’s
birthday. Where there are fires in old buildings and
other places the House Cricket delights to dwell, and
the manner in which it contrives to get behind walls,
skirting, and similar retreats is remarkable to notice.
New houses are not exempt from its presence, and
whilst its curious love-song does not recommend itself
to some listeners, by others it is regarded with even
veneration, and evidently Leigh Hunt was impressed
with it, for in his lines to ‘‘ The Grasshopper and The
Cricket,’ he writes :—
‘**O sweet and tiny cousins that belong,

One to the fields, the other to the hearth,
Both have your sunshine ; both though small are strong,
To sing in thoughtful ears this natural song—

Indoors and out, Summer and Winter, mirth.”
23

BRITISH INSECTS

The House Cricket (Fig. 7) revels in heat, and it is
wonderful what a high temperature it can stand, but we
are told, and not without surprise, that it often gets
thirsty, and must have somewhere at hand where it
can drink. Damp wool seems to be a favourite diet

Fig 7: House Crichel”

of this species, but there must surely be other ingre-
dients upon which it feeds of which we are not cognisant
Clothes, placed to air or dry by the fire overnight, or in
an airing cupboard, have been found to be riddled by
these household inmates, reminding one of the ravages of
the larva of the Clothes Moth, of whose unkind attention
my expensive boxcloth gaiters bear ample evidence at the
present time. The Cricket is attracted by light, if the
latter is extinguished in the room, and an electric torch
is held at its entrance hole. In Summer one can often
hear Crickets out-of-doors. ‘These need not neces-
sarily be Field Crickets, as the House Cricket will forsake
its indoor retreat in Summer, and take a lengthy airing
24

FIELD CRICKET AND GRASSHOPPERS

outside. Some old folks say it is lucky to have these
insects on the premises, and one writer has given his
testimony thus: “ Personally, I like the music (of the
Cricket), and spare the annoyance of having my socks
made into mince meat by keeping them out of Mr.
Cricket’s way.”

The Field Cricket (Gryllus campestris) is larger and
darker than its household cousin, and remains under-
ground by day, stealing forth at night to secure its food.
The male is most persistent in his efforts to call, or
soothe, his mate, and will remain at the entrance to his
burrow love-calling for hours on end. The larva
closely resembles the imago minus wings, and lives in a
burrow of its own making.

The Grasshoppers are classed under two distinct
Families, those known as the Long-Horned being in-
cluded in the Phasgonuride, and the Short-Horned are
relegated to the Family Locustide, which also embraces
the Locusts. The former are distinguished from the
Crickets by having four-jointed legs, and the presence
of soft pads to assist them to obtain a foothold upon
the leaves and stems of plants. ‘They have—as the
Long-Horned name implies—very long antennze made
up of a large number of joints (see coloured frontis-
piece), and as many as 480 joints have been counted on
the antennz of one individual. ‘These larger, long-
horned species resort to bushes, shrubs, and trees, and
whilst some feed upon leaves, others are carnivorous.
The stridulating noise—cleverly likened by a boy

25

BRITISH INSECTS

acquaintance of mine toa Fairy’s sewing machine—is pro-
duced in the same way as that of the Cricket, the drum
being situate at the base of the right wing, and the file,
or bow, on the left one. Whilst the male only is capable
of producing this familiar country sound in the majority
of winged species, there are allied insects in which both
sexes are equally favoured in this respect.

The Great Green Grasshopper (Phasgonura vitridis-
sima) is our largest British species, and resorts to bushes,
grassy lanes, and hedgerows. It appears in August and
September. I have found it very plentiful in Devon
and Cornwall. Miss Meyer’s coloured illustration will
convey a much better idea than a lengthy description of
this beautiful insect. It is at least two to three inches in
length, has very long hind legs, with a knob-like joint
at the knee, and large eyes. It is worthy of close scrutiny
under a powerful glass.

The cheery little tenant of our grassy commons and
waysides, the Common Grasshopper (Stenobothrus b1-
color) fitly represents the Short-Horned species of the
Family Locustide. As already indicated, this family
includes the Locusts, but the visits of the latter to this
country are so infrequent that the bare mention of their
name must suffice. The Short-Horned Grasshoppers
have, as their name implies, much shorter antennz
than their larger cousins, and they have three, instead
of four-jointed legs. Some species are almost, if not
quite, wingless, and whilst the hearing organs of Crickets,
Grasshoppers, and Locusts are very perfect, and the
26

THE COMMON GRASSHOPPER

ears of Phasgonuride are situate upon the front pair of
legs, those of the Locustide are placed on each side of
the base of the abdomen. The happy-go-lucky life
passed by this cheerful little tenant of the countryside
will be known to all those who revel in the joys of the
outdoor world. As a general rule, it appears to be a
vegetarian, but its numbers do not ever attain the pro-
portions of its cousin, the Locust, and it does not per-
petrate any appreciable damage. It appears to vary in
colour, brown, green, red, yellow, and other varieties
being forthcoming. The long, narrow, and elliptical
eggs are deposited in batches in the ground, a hole being
made by the short, stout ovipositor at the extremity of
the female’s body. It is much shorter and less pro-
minent than that of the Long-Horned Grasshopper,
which is a very conspicuous appendage. ‘The eggs are
covered over with a sticky secretion, which hardens and
affords them protection. The eggs remain as such
until early Spring, and when the larva appears it passes
through successive moults until it is eventually ready
to take up its appointed place in the great world of life.

27

BRITISH INSECTS

ORDER IV. RHYNCHOTA, OR BUGS, FROTH-
FLIES, APHIDS, AND SCALE-INSECTS

This unpopular order of insects—many, if not most,
of the species included therein being pests of mankind—
is divided into two Sub-Orders in which the Bugs (in-
cluding the Water Boatman and Water Scorpion), find
a place among the Hemiptera, and the Frog Hopper
(or Froth Fly), Green Fly, Apple Sucker, and Scale
Insects constitute the Homoptera. All these creatures
have an incomplete metamorphosis, the mouth part
is formed into a long proboscis for piercing or sucking
(hence name of Order from Rhyncos=a beak), and,
when not in use, it is hidden beneath the body, and is
directed backwards. In the Hemiptera the base of the
front wings is of leathery texture, and the wings are
held crossed when at rest. For the most part these
creatures are vegetarians, as they live by sucking juices
from plants; others, however, do not restrict their
attention to plants, but attack and obtain blood from
various animals, including man. Fortunately, the worst
offenders are found in other countries than our own.
We may now consider a few typical representatives of
the Hemiptera, and for this purpose we may first dispose
of the Land Bugs, as we may call them, and then devote

attention to two familiar aquatic species.
28

SHIELD AND OTHER BUGS

The Shield Bugs are so-called because they have a
shield, or plate, covering the wings, and our British
species are of small size. Then there are their cousins,
the Pentagonal Shield Bugs, which have been thus
named because the wing-shield does not wholly cover
the flight-appendages, and is so placed that it forms a
triangle, which is sometimes incomplete at the sides,
so that it forms a five-sided plate situate above the bases
of the wings. These Bugs haunt plants of various
kinds for the purpose of extracting the juices, but they
also feed upon soft-bodied insects. In colour they
are brown or green, and measure about half an inch
long. Other species are much smaller and narrower.
Others again, possess almost transparent wings (such as
the Lace-Winged Bug), and whilst all are enemies of
plants, the worst offender as regards human beings is
the Bed Bug (Czmex lectularius). It is reddish-brown
in colour, flattish in form, and emits a most offensive
odour, in addition to forcing its distasteful presence
upon a household or, worse still, upon one’s person.
As with the Crickets, there seems some doubt as to the
original home of this insect, but it is thought to have
come from Africa. One rather wishes that it had
stayed there! Cleanliness is essential to combat the
attention of this detestable household pest, but even
this is not always successful as I have known more than
cne house, the tenants of which were scrupulously
clean, to be troubled with them. Incidentally, it may
be stated that the Cockroach is an enemy of the Bug

D 29

BRITISH INSECTS

so that, if both kinds of insects are found taking lodgings
in a household, the owner must decide for himself which,
if either, of the two he will decide to harbour. We
would not, in any case, advise the introduction of the
Cockroach to combat the Bug. In addition to Cimex
lectularius, there are three others of the same genus
which seem to restrict attention to Bats, Pigeons, and
Swallows, and have, in consequence, been accorded
the specific names of C. pipistrelli, C. colombarius, and
C.. hirundinis, respectively. There is one more species
which deserves mention, that is the Masked Bug which
somewhat resembles the Water Scorpion described later
on. It measures almost an inch in length, and has
black wings. ‘The larva and adult both prey upon other
insects (including the Bed Bug), and presumably the
popular name has been acquired because the larva has
the habit of camouflaging its body with some substance,
so as to stalk its prey unobserved. The long-legged
Water Measurers (Hydrometra), and also the Pond
Skaters (Gerride), are close relatives of the Land Bugs.
They will be known by sight to almost everyone who
visits a pond or stream, and their movements (the Mea-
surer’s slow, the Skater’s quick) rarely fail to excite
interest. This introduces us to two further pond-
dwellers in the persons of the Water Boatman and Water
Scorpion. The first-named insect (Notonecta glauca) (Fig.
8), has a smooth, flattish, yellowish-brown body about
half an inch long, but its chief appeal to the popular
mind is its habit of floating upside down, and propelling
30

THE WATER BOATMAN

itself by its long, hairy hind legs. Its resemblance to
a miniature boat is very remarkable. It is at once
sluggish and active, that is, it exerts itself strenuously
when it wishes to move, or change its position, but
soon afterwards takes up a “‘ mark-time’’ attitude as
if its efforts were too much for it, and it required a rest
from its labours. It is a capital tenant for an aquarium,
and like its relative next claiming attention, rarely fails
to excite interest, especially among those (and they
are legion) who have little, or no, knowledge of the

fig 8
Walter Boatman.

wonderful variety of life in the nearest pond or stream.
The Water Boatman is a rapid flier, and whilst the
outer pair of wings resemble those of the Coleoptera
(or Beetles), serving for protection rather than loco-
motion, the delicate inner wings are objects of great
beauty. It has a powerful beak capable of inflicting
a nasty puncture. Small wonder, therefore, that it
often preys upon larger creatures than itself, and having
once secured a meal, shows considerable reluctance to
“let go.” The eggs are laid singly on various kinds of
water-plants, each egg being deposited in a hole made

31

BRITISH INSECTS

by the female’s ovipositor. The larva is very similar

to the adult, excepting for the absence of wings, but

in the pupal state rudimentary wings are present.
The Water Scorpion (Nepa cinerea, Figs. 9 and ga),

oO
M4

y

Fig oa. Larva of
Wate Seecuee

Waler Se orion
is first-cousin of the last-mentioned species, and it has
acquired its popular (or unpopular !) name because the
front pair of legs bear a resemblance to the forceps of
the true Scorpion. This familiar aquatic insect is dull
brown in colour, marked with some red. It has a broad,
flat, bug-like body, which measures about an inch in
length, and about half as much across. It inhabits
both clear-running streams as well as ponds, and per-
haps the most conspicuous feature is the apparatus by
which the creature takes in free air. This double tube
is attached to the abdomen, and when this water-dweller
requires a fresh supply of air, it rises to the surface and
protrudes its “tail.” ‘This accomplished, it dives below
32

THE WATER SCORPION

again to renew its operations. When secreted upon
the bed of its environment, or among aquatic plants, it
is difficult to detect, and as it is not of very active habits,
it secures protection in this way. As a matter of fact,
it is not a tempting morsel for other creatures to prey
upon, and seems mostly immune from attack. But its
protective resemblance does enable the Water Scorpion
to lie in wait for its own prey, and this, together with
the power of the front pair of legs, serve it to great
advantage. Having secured its victim, the short sharp
beak soon gets to work on the former’s body. The
clawed forelegs are beautifully fashioned, so as to be
closed like a pocket-knife when not in use. When the
membranous under-wings are fully extended, the insect
is more presentable, and is likely to make a stronger
appeal, as there is not only a bright red streak across
part of the wings, but the upper surface of the abdomen
is also edged with the same colour. It hibernates in
Winter, and can, if needs be, remain under water for a
great length of time without approaching the surface.
The oval-shaped eggs are deposited in a string, and the
larva closely resembles the mature insect. The longer
and more slender breathing tube of the adult is replaced
with a much shorter and thicker apparatus in the im-
mature form.

We now come to smaller fry included in the Sub-
Order Homoptera, members of which possess wings
having the same texture throughout, and these (where
they do occur) are held roof-like when the insect is at

33

BRITISH INSECTS

rest. ‘There are several families of Homoptera which
are unrepresented in Britain—such as the Cicadas
(notorious for the sounds that they are capable of pro-
ducing), the Lantern Flies (Fulgoride), which in some
species have curiously developed heads, and, in addition,
secrete wax which is used by the Chinese for making
candles. ‘This brings us to the Cercopide, or Froth
Flies, the commonest and best known being the so-
called Cuckoo Spit, or Frog Hopper (Philenus spumarius).
The blobs of froth which may be seen attached to garden
and wild plants in early Summer will be well known,
but few people seem aware that the soft green larva of
the Frog Hopper is responsible for this, and that the
little tenant of the froth may easily be found by searching.
This substance is an obvious protection for this familiar
country dweller, until such time that its development
enables it to dispense with the frothy covering. By
this time, it has become a hard, dark-coloured, jumpy
little beast, capable of prodigious hops for so small a
creature. If man could, in comparison with his size,
cover similar ground, the speed at which we live would
be even more pronounced than it is to-day. When
hidden in the froth apparently little harm is perpetrated.
It is just a question of ‘‘ wait and see ”’ as, when mature,
the Frog Hopper is a great lover of the juice of plants,
and is constantly puncturing young leaves in order to
extract the juice. This causes the leaves to wither
and decay. Of the amazing Aphides or Green-Fly,
much might be written. Green-Fly is rather a mis-
34

APHIDES, OR GREEN FLY

nomer, as there is a sooty-coloured pest belonging to
this family which affects beans, and another species is
a great enemy of hops. Roses, apple-trees, and other
garden produce are preyed upon by these hosts of small
plant-lice who, by sheer force of numbers and power
of multiplication, are difficult to deal with successfully.
Certain kinds of birds—and also, be it noted, the larva
of the Ladybird Beetle—perform useful work in re-
ducing the plagues that infest our gardens, but spraying
and hand-picking are alike necessary. Even then, it is
difficult to cope with the pests, as their method of pro-
pagation is such that, in double-quick time, another
host soon appears, and one’s work seems never done
when the invading Aphides are at their height. Of
the species which affect agriculture, horticulture, and
forestry mention may be made by name only of the
Apple, Bean, Cabbage, Carrot, Cherry, Currant, Goose-
berry, Hop, Larch, Peach, Plum, Raspberry, Rose,
Rosy Apple, Turnip, and Woolly Aphides. ‘The variety
of plants attacked is indicated by the popular name.
Spraying with extract of quassia may be recommended
(see “‘ Pests of the Garden and Orchard, Farm and
Forest,” by Ray Palmer, F.E.S., and the Author), and
it is very evident that, to be successful in the cultivation
of plants, it is essential to have an intimate knowledge of
one’s friends and foes, and the best method to employ
in dealing with those inimical to the interests of man-
kind. I venture to recommend the work above re-
ferred to in this respect. Perhaps the detestable Woolly

35

BRITISH INSECTS

Aphis (Schizoneura lanigera) is one of the worst enemies
of all. It is incorrectly called American Blight as it is
of European origin. It is a great enemy of apple trees
all over the world, and is soon recognised by the soft
white mildew-like substance which covers both the
adult females and young. The wingless females are
purplish-brown in colour, and these are constantly
giving birth to ving young, and the latter, in due course,
conimence to perform a like operation. The eggs are
deposited by wingless oviparous females, and these
hatch the succeeding Spring, but adult insects also
hibernate in cracks, crevices, and elsewhere. The whole
story cannot here be told, though it is as fascinating in
interest as a fairy tale, but has a much less pleasant
ending. As the Woolly Aphis attacks the roots, as
well as the parts above ground, remedies must be applied
for combating both sets of enemies. The best method
is to paint the patches on the branches with methylated
spirit, and below ground it is essential that carbon bi-
sulphide should be injected into the soil around the
roots in Winter. Grease banding—as carried out for
the destructive Winter Moth—is also a preventive, and
can be recommended. Another serious pest belonging
to the same Sub Order Homoptera is the Apple Sucker
(Psylla mali). It attacks buds, blossoms, and leaves
of apples, and the eggs may be found in Winter and
early Spring on the twigs, especially around the buds.
They are pale yellow, and curiously shaped. Larval
and nymphal stages are passed through, and eventually
36

SCALE INSECTS

the adult appears. It is unfortunate that such a good-
looking insect should be so destructive in its larval state,
as its greenish colour and transparent wings are of an
attractive description. Spraying with a nicotine soap-
wash, paraffin emulsion, etc., is recommended, but it
would be wise to consult the work on “ Pests ”’ already
referred to, as it is outside the scope of this popular
treatise to do more than draw the reader’s attention to
the matter. The Coccide, or Seale Insects, next call
for notice by way of concluding our studies of the Order
Rhynchota. ‘These have acquired their name from the
scale-like appearance of the females of many of the
species. ‘The males are delicate looking creatures, and
only possess one pair of wings. These Scale-Insects
attack such plants as apple, apricot, ash, beech, currant,
elm, gooseberry, peach, pear, plum, vine, and willow.
One species is so-called because it resembles a mussel,
another is somewhat like a small oyster-shell. Spray-
ing with a caustic alkali wash is an effective remedy.
It is only within recent years that close study has been
made of these and other enemies of the husbandman,
and any young naturalist, desirous of aiding the food-
production of his country, would do well to specialise
in some branch of pest-study, so as to help complete
the full life-histories of these minute creatures, and
others might equally well concentrate their efforts upon
the best remedies that can be employed for dealing
with them.

37

BRITISH INSECTS

ORDER V. COLEOPTERA, OR BEETLES

The very large number of species included in this
important Order of Insects, the largest British Order
we have after the Hymenoptera and Diptera, has already
been alluded to, but it is necessary to emphasise it again
here as the possibility of dealing with more than a few
representatives of the principal families cannot be enter-
tained. ‘The Sheath-Winged Insects, or Beetles, undergo
a complete metamorphosis. ‘The front pair of wings
are called elytra, and these serve the purpose of pro-
tecting the hind ones, and are not of use for flight.
The flight appendages are folded beneath the elytra,
and, when at rest, they meet in a straight line along the
back, and do not cross one another. It is by reason of
the elytra hiding the soft hind wings that surprise is so
often expressed by the unobservant as to the possession
of ‘‘ wings ”’ by even the more familiar kinds of Beetles.
The Coleoptera are, as a rule, divided into twelve Sub-
Orders, each of course with certain characters by which
they are classified. ‘These need not detain us here as
the chief points of interest are pointed out as we proceed.

The Green Tiger Beetle (Cicindella campestris), is the
first to occupy pride of place as representing the
Cicindelide, which are active, predaceous beetles whose
larve make perpendicular shafts in dry soil, and lie
38

VIOLET GROUND AND BOMBARDIER BEETLES

in ambush for their prey. The species under review is
fond of sandy, or gravelly, soil, and revels in hot sun-
shine. It is adorned with a bright green dress, spotted
with yellow. Both as a larva and imago it partakes of
an insectivorous diet, and may be regarded as a friend
of the gardener. Of the larger number of Carnivorous
Ground Beetles, Family Carabide, whose clean bodies
are so often commented upon when one suddenly dis-
turbs a specimen from beneath the soil, we may select
the Violet Ground Beetle (Carabus violaceous, see Frontis-
piece), and the Bombardier (Brachinus crepitans). ‘These,
too, are of predaceous habits, the majority feeding at
dark, and hiding under stones, logs, and elsewhere by
day. It is always a good idea when in the country to
turn over stones, logs, fallen tree-stumps, old sacks, and
other debris so as to ascertain if any creatures are in
hiding underneath. The searcher is more often than
not rewarded. The Violet Ground Beetle should not
be killed as, being carnivorous, it does good in feeding
upon soft-bodied insects and grubs contained in the
soil. The popular name of “Slug Killer” given by
gardeners to the larva of C. violaceous is sufficient testi-
mony of its usefulness. The adult is, as its name im-
plies, dark violet-blue, and as proving that there are
exceptions to every rule, this species has its elytra fastened
together, and the under wings are not developed. 'There-

fore it cannot fly.
The Bombardier Beetle (Brachinus crepitans), is chiefly
notorious because it has the habit of discharging from
39

BRITISH INSECTS

the extremity of its body a volatile fluid which vaporises
with a slight explosion when coming into contact with
the air. When being pursued by an enemy, and the
Bombardier fires a ‘‘ shot,’ the effect on the former
can be better imagined than described. If the first
“shot ” fails, quite a little cannonade is kept up until
the ammunition gives out.

The Devil’s Coach-Horse, or Cocktail Beetle (Ocypus

t
i

ne

: Fig 10.
Devil's Coach Horse.

olens, Fig. 10), is a familiar tenant of the garden, and its
mourning attire, and threatening attitude as it turns
up its head and “tail,” are well known. It has quick
powers of movement, is about an inch in length, and
has very short wing-cases. It produces the largest
egg of any British insect. It is a useful species, the
larva and adult feeding upon slugs and the larve of other
insects. It is called by the specific name of olens=
stinking, because of the odour it gives off.

The ceaseless gyrations of the Whirligig Beetle (Gyri-
nus natator) as, joined by numerous companions, it
rushes round and round the surface of pond or stream,
is another common water-dweller. As it pursues its
40 °

GREAT BROWN WATER BEETLE

evolutions, it seems to have solved the problem of per-
petual motion, and as the sun lights up the body-covering,
the little round fellows remind one of globules of quick-
silver, and as equally elusive! It belongs to the Family
Gyrinide, the larve living below the surface, but the
adults, as indicated, are surface-skimmers, rushing here,
there, and everywhere by means of their paddle-shaped
middle and hind legs. The front pair are used for
seizing and holding prey.

We again make the acquaintance of further predaceous
insects among the Dytiscide, the representative selected
for this family being Dytiscus marginalis, or Great Brown
Water Beetle, (Figs. 11, 12 and 13). ‘This fine insect
is a terror of the pond or stream in which it dwells,
both in the larval and adult states. It is one of the
““ sharks ” of insect-life, and woe betide any creature
which it is able to tackle successfully. Once it secures
a hold, there is no leaving go. The tapered larva is
prominently segmented, and bears a pair of strong
jaws, and breathing tubes at the opposite extremity,
It may be mistaken for the larva of the Dragon Fly by
the inexperienced. The pupa is thicker, and bears
more evidence of the creature that-is-to-be, and the
imago is dark olive-brown, with large wing-cases, and
strong jaws. ‘This beetle is free of all the elements, as
it can crawl, fly, and swim, and will, on occasions, leave
one sheet of water for another. It is a fine diver and
swimmer, the hind pair of limbs being flat-like, and
fringed with hairs, specially adapted for the purpose

41

BRITISH INSECTS

for which they are required. It measures about 1}
inches in length, and about } an inch across. It has
two sharp spines near the hind legs which are of obvious

Fig. 11. Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

Fig.11, Larva. Fig. 12, Pupa. Fig. 13, Image of Great
Brown Water Beetle.

service for defence, and also discharges an evil-smelling

fluid when irritated. When the larva is ready to pupate,
42

GREAT BLACK WATER & ROVE BEETLES

it leaves the water-margin, and excavates a small oval-
shaped cell in which to remain concealed. Under
normal conditions it doesn’t take long for the perfect
beetle to emerge, but there are times when it remains
in the pupal state throughout the Winter. The adult
extrudes its hind quarters above the surface of the water
so as to take in a fresh supply of air bubbles.

The Great Black Water Beetle (Hydrous piceus), must
not be confused with the last-mentioned, as, in the
adult state, H. piceus appears to be a vegetarian. It is
the largest member of the Coleoptera in Britain, with
the sole exception of the handsome Stag Beetle. The
female deposits a number of eggs in an oval cocoon
which she cleverly attaches to an aquatic plant. The
larva feeds upon animal food until such time that, for
some reason, it decides to become a vegetarian! ‘This
species is harmless in an aquarium and may much more
safely be recommended than Dytiscus marginalis. It
belongs to the Family Hydrophilide. The Staphylinida,
or Rove Beetles, are next in order of merit as regards
the family tree, but must be summarily dismissed with
the statement that they include a very large assembly
of small species which, although good fliers, fold their
wings into a very small space, and have very short wing-
covers. ‘Those with which the reader is most likely to
come into contact are the annoying little insects which
have such an obnoxious habit of getting into one’s eye,
and causing painful irritation until removed. These
unwelcome visitors are all popularly dubbed “ Flies ”

43

BRITISH INSECTS

by the unfortunate recipient. Carrion-feeding beetles
next engage attention, and these belong to the Silphide,
which includes Necrophorus vespillo, or the Burying
Beetle (Fig. 14). This species, and its kindred, have the

Fig =
Burying Beetle

curious habit of burying dead birds, mice, shrews, voles,
and other animals by digging the earth away beneath
them. This accomplished, the beetle deposits her
eggs upon the dead carcase, and when the larve, or
grubs, hatch they find an abundant food-supply near at
hand. These insect-scavengers perform useful work,
and it is largely owing to their efforts that so few dead
bodies of wild creatures are discovered. ‘These Carrion
Beetles also devour some of the decomposing flesh of the
carcase, and seem to relish the bad odour that is given
off. They may be known by the possession of a knob
at the tip of the antenna. The Burying Beetle is rarely
seen, unless close watch is kept over a dead rodent,

bird, or other animal, and they seem to fly about on their
44

LADYBIRD BEETLES

scavenging expeditions in pairs, being attracted to the
spot by scent. The commonest species is brownish-
black, with bands and spots of orange-yellow.

The Coccinellide includes the useful Ladybird Beetles,
and these are popularly named according to the number
of spots which they bear upon the wing-cases. The
usual form is quite familiar, as the Ladybird is almost as
highly regarded in the world of insect life as the Robin
is among birds. Yet it is distressing to notice how
this beneficent insect is destroyed when in the larval
state by even experienced gardeners, to some of whom
all animal life spells ‘‘ foe”?! During a large invasion
of these beetles on the South Devon Coast a year or
two ago, I also witnessed a small child just able to toddle
busily occupied crushing dozens of these creatures by
way of amusement. The larva may frequently be dis-
covered among plant-lice on the under surface of curled
apple leaves. It is smoke-grey in colour, with yellow
or white dots, and is very slow-moving. It does good
by feeding upon the lice, and should at all times be
encouraged. The rounded convex form, short legs
and antenne, black and red, or black and yellow elytra,
and the number of the spots, are features of interest.
Two of the most familiar species are known as the
Two-Spot and Seven-Spot respectively, but there is
another called the Eyed Ladybird, having eight black
spots, which perform useful service in clearing off green
fly from hop plants. The creamy-white eggs of Lady-
birds are deposited on plants during Spring, and the

K 45

BRITISH INSECTS

black and creamy-white pupa is short and stumpy.
The only defence this insect has is by ejecting an orange-
coloured fluid of an acrid nature. It feigns death in a
very clever way, but takes to wing when it considers
the coast is clear.

The Raspberry Beetle (Byturus tomentosus) is a very
destructive insect belonging to the family Byturide.
The larva eats the tasty berries, but the adult devotes
attention to the buds and blossoms. The brown under-
coat is more or less concealed by yellowish-grey down.
The yellowish larva has a brown head, and is about
half an inch in length. Eggs are laid in raspberry
blossoms, and doubtless the reader has encountered
the larva when eating some of the luscious fruit. When
full-fed, a cocoon is made in a crack of the cane, or
elsewhere, and the beetle does not emerge until the
succeeding April or May.

What are called the Lamellicorns include not only
many large and striking insects, but a number of them
are to be regarded as pests to crops and trees. We may
here include the Cockchafer, three of its cousins, and
the Dor Beetle, of the Family Scarabeide.

The Cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris, Fig. 15), feeds
upon the leaves of elm, oak, and other trees, but it is
the fat larva which does most damage, as it devotes
attention to roots of cultivated crops, and passes three
years beneath the soil before completing its develop-
ment The adult beetle has a black head and abdomen,
with reddish-brown elytra, and fan-shaped antennez, the
46

THE CHAFER BEETLES

latter worthy of examination under a lens. The creamy-
white eggs are deposited in batches in the ground, and
the soft fleshy grubs are greyish-white, with hard brown
heads, and long legs. When brought above ground,
the grub is inactive, and curls its body inwards. It is

AWK
d Ky
Fig is. (acinar

the Summer Chafer (Rhizotrogus solstitialis), a smaller
species than the foregoing, that occurs more or less
regularly every season, as its life cycle only takes a year
to complete. It is mostly on the wing in July.

The Garden Chafer (Phyllopertha horticola), is a day-
flier, and often in large numbers. It is the smallest
of the four, and is green and reddish-brown in colour.
The larva does harm to grass land, and the adults pay
attention to the foliage of beans, peas, roses, turnips,
ete.

The pretty Rose Chafer (Cetonia aurata), is bright
green, marked with white on the wing-cases. It flies
during May and June on bright days, and unfortunately
does damage to the flowers and foliage of raspberries,

47

BRITISH INSECTS

roses, strawberries, and turnips. ‘The larve live in
the ground for two or three years, and are similar to
those of M. vulgaris.

Many species of Scarabaide, like the one which
follows, are dung-feeders, but the most famous is the
so-called Sacred Scarab of the Egyptian desert about
which Henri Fabre has written so arrestingly. This,
and others of its kin, roll excrement into round balls
with the hind legs until a suitable spot is reached where
the curious meal can be partaken of at leisure.

The Dor Beetle (Geotrupes stercorarius Fig. 16), is

Dor Bee fle

the all-black fellow with droning flight met with of a
Summer evening when twilight shadows fall. It whizzes
past on unerring wings, singing cheerfully as it pursues
its airy course. On the underside of the body the
adult is steel-blue, with a green or purple gloss. The
eggs are laid in manure heaps, and in this warm retreat
the larva passes the Winter. The latter is not a harmful
creature, and acts as one of the sanitary agents of Nature.

The handsome Stag Beetle (Lucanus cervus, Fig. 17),
48

THE STAG BEETLE

fitly represents the family Lucanide, the males of which
have such a large head and jaws that they have been
likened to the antlers of the monarch of the glen, and
perpetuated in the common English name. Most
species feed during the larval state on rotten wood.
The shining chocolate-black armour of the Stag Beetle

lig if Slag Beetle.

sets off to advantage this large, fine creature, and whilst
the antlered male is the larger of the sexes, the female
has more powerful jaws than her husband. I have
known the female to be picked up by the male and
carried away triumphant, after the latter had fought for

49

BRITISH INSECTS

possession with arival. ‘This insect presents an engaging
sight when seen flying, and often ascends to a consider-
able height. The small antlers of the female enable
her to pierce a hole in a tree-trunk, and in this she de-
posits her egg. The resultant grub feeds upon the wood
but, when full-fed, crawls to the ground, and pupates
in a cocoon. It appears to emerge in late Autumn,
but is not ready to become a free-agent until the next
Summer. The adult lives on the juices of plants, being
provided with a brush-like organ admirably suited for
this purpose.

The Anobiide includes a number of species which
are very destructive to dry timber, woodwork, and
furniture, this being the work of the larva as it
tunnels and eats its way along. Valuable furniture
may be utterly ruined in this way by the larva of the
well-known Death-Watch Beetle (Xestobium rufovillo-
sum), and four-post bedsteads, bookcases, and other
articles specially suffer. One of my own walnut book-
cases was reduced almost to matchwood by the incursions
of these larve, and at the time of writing very large
cavities have been made by them in the roof of the his-
toric Westminster Hall, which has made it quite unsafe,
and needing immediate attention. The curious ticking
noise which has given rise to so many superstitions and
beliefs, is caused by the beetle striking the jaws in regular
motion against resounding wood. When wainscoting
was more used than to-day, the “ supernatural ”’ sound
often came from its vicinity, this being a favourite re-
50

DEATH-WATCH & GLOW-WORM BEETLES

treat for this interesting, but destructive, creature.
The noise is said to be made as a signal to attract each
other. It is a brown-coloured species, and one can
hardly credit that so small a creature is capable of per-
petrating such damage. Other species also attack fur-
niture and similar articles, and still another is a mark
on books, boots, and leather goods, if these have not
been used for any length of time and the larvee allowed
to carry out their depredations undisturbed.

The Glow-Worm Beetle (Lampyris noctiluca Fig. 18),

Fig “Be
(iaro Worre
fecacle.

comes next, and belongs, like the Fire-Flies, to the
Lampyride. ‘The males always have wings, but the
females are very unlike their mates, being grub-like.
Even the eggs are luminous, and, as is well known,
the adults are expert “lamplighters.”” Sometimes a
walk of a warm Summer’s evening is reminiscent of
fairyland, so prettily is the herbage lit up with the soft
green lights of this species. Nearly all of them are
useful, as the prey mostly consists of slugs and snails.

Glow-Worms, it should be noted, are not the only
51

BRITISH INSECTS

creatures in Britain which bear a phosphorescent light,
as certain kinds of Centipedes also bear a trail of light,
and one should not be mistaken for the other. The
adult female Glow Worm is flat in form, with promi-
nent segments, and a sombre grey dress. She is wing-
less, and the winged male is much more rarely discovered.
Both are of nocturnal habits.

When Summer is at its height large numbers of
small, red-coloured insects may be found on such wild
plants as yellow parsnip (the ancestor of the garden
parsnip), hogweed, and other flowers. This is the
Soldier Beetle (Telephorus fuscus), and represents the
Soldiers and Sailors (red and blue) of the insect-world.
The family is known as the Telephoride. It is not only
the colour that entitles them to represent the Army and
Navy, as they are great fighters, and if some of each are
kept in confinement they will fight and devour each
other. They may easily be captured when found on
flower-heads, but will sometimes take to flight. Pre-
sumably the nectar secreted by certain umbelliferous
plants (such as yellow parsnip) attracts them. If so,
it is interesting to observe that such a_ bloodthirsty
creature has, at least, a sweet “‘ tooth.”

The Elateride includes the Skipjack, or Click Beetle,
(Agriotes lineatus), the larve of which—called Wire-
worms—are so very injurious to crops. ‘This species
has acquired its popular name from its habit of throwing
itself into the air with a jerk when placed on its back.

As it does this, it makes a sudden clicking noise. ‘There
52

SKIPJACK AND OIL BEETLES

are several species, but the one mentioned is a very able
representative of its fellows. It is a small, long, narrow
insect, and the yellow larva is nearly an inch long when
full-grown. It has a hard cylindrical and polished body,
with a few short hairs, a hard, dark-coloured head, and
strong jaws. The three pairs of legs are placed on the
first three segments, and on the last segment there is
a lump, or swelling. As the larval state is assumed for
at least three years, the amount of damage perpetrated
is enormous. Nothing comes amiss to them, and only
the efforts of some kinds of birds (such as Jackdaws,
Rooks, and Starlings) save us from a plague of these
plant-pests. ‘The well-known form of the Oil Beetle
(Meloé proscarabeus, Fig. 19), is more often seen in

Fig 19.
a Oud Beetle

eatly Spring, when the slow-moving creature crawls
from its hiding place for the purpose of feeding, mating,
and depositing eggs. On St. Bees Head, Cumberland,
I once counted several hundreds of these beetles in

53

BRITISH INSECTS

various sizes, all congregated on the slopes of that fine
grassy headland. Many were in the act of mating,
but why such a large number happened to meet in such
a confined area I have never been able to understand.
Was it a regular meeting-place of the clans? ‘This
is a parasite when in the larval state, as it feeds upon
the eggs, young, or stored-up food of other insects.
Before it reaches the pupal state it undergoes several
changes of form, but the adult may always be known by
its dull black body, and the female in particular by the
length of her clearly ringed abdomen, and very short
elytra. When handled, it exudes a caustic secretion
for protective purposes, and this, when extracted, is
used medicinally as cantharidine. The eggs of at least
one species of Meloé Beetle are laid in the ground, and
the larva crawls into the heart of a wayside flower and
contrives to attach itself to a bee’s body when the latter
is pursuing its sweet pillage. As a result, it is carried
to the bee’s home where, becoming detached after its
exhilarating joy-ride, it slips into one of the cells, and
soon consumes the egg, or grub, of the rightful owner,
and gobbles up the food placed there for the bee’s own
young! It then pupates, and eventually crawls forth
as the creature known by sight to almost every country-
dweller who has eyes to see. The Oil Beetle belongs
to the Family Meloide.

The Curculionidae, or Weevils, are a very large family
of vegetarians, and from these we may select the Apple
Blossom Weevil (Anthonomus pomorum), and Nut Weevil
54

WEEVILS & ELM BARK BEETLES

(Balaninus nucum). ‘The former kiils the flower buds of
apples and pears, the result of an egg deposited in each
bud, and the consequent ravages of the larva, but there
are others which produce excrescences upon turnips,
or disembowel oak leaves, and a whole plantation of
Austrian pines has been destroyed by Pissodes notatus.
Others resort to beans, peas, plums, raspberries, and
vines. ‘The Apple Blossom Weevil has a snout, or
rostrum, about half as long as its body. It is blackish,
with a greyish down, and is of nocturnal habits. The
larva feeds on the vital organs of the flower—the stamens
and pistil—and the adult eats the leaves. The egg
hatches in a few days after being laid, the larva appearing
as a white maggot. It only feeds for a week or two,
and then pupates. But the harm is already done by
then. Fruit trees should be sprayed in February with
Winter spray fluid, or caustic alkali, or with arsenate of
lead just before the buds open.

The circular holes so often seen in hazel-nuts are
caused by the larva of the Nut Weevil which feeds upon
the tasty interior, The little round hole gives away the
secret where the creature made good its escape after
having had its fill by eating away its “home.” We
have still to consider another destructive family of
beetles in the Scolytide, among which may be men-
tioned the Elm Bark Beetle (Scolytus destructor, Fig. 20).
Although these are only small insects, they do a great
deal of damage, as the larve feed on the layer of wood
just underneath the bark. If a dead piece of bark is

55

BRITISH INSECTS

ripped off, doubtless the observer will see the curious
markings made by this beetle as a result of its ravages.
The female Scolytus bores a hole under the bark of the
living tree, and then inserts her eggs. In due course,
the eggs hatch, and the larva commence their depreda-

timé¢s enlarged.
oa

tions. Egg-laying takes place in June, pupation in
July, and emergence in August, so that no time is lost.
Some, however, hibernate and appear as perfect insects
the succeeding May. ‘This species has a black polished
head and thorax, with dark brown elytra. The larva is
a white, fleshy, legless grub.

The Pine Beetle (Hylurgus piniperda), belongs to the
same family, and is a forest pest. It attacks young
shoots of Scots pine trees. ‘The adult is bronze-black,
with a blunt head, short clubbed antennz (characteristic
of the Scolytide), and rough wing-cases.

Of the Cerambycide, which are wood-eaters and do
much damage among forest trees, we may select the
Musk Beetle (Aromia moschata, Fig. 21), which has very
long and slender antenne. It has acquired its popular
name because of the pleasant odour it emits, and in some
56

TIMBERMAN & PEA AND BEAN BEETLES

districts is called the Squeaker as it produces a shrill
sound by friction. It is green in colour, and is not of
very active disposition. The larva is the wood-feeder.

Fig 2 Musk Beetle

One more British Longicorn should be mentioned
before passing on, and that is the Timberman Beetle
(Astinomus edilis). It has extraordinarily long antenne,
and is resident in the north country where the larve
burrow into pine trees, and thus commit a good deal of
damage.

The Pea and Bean Beetles belong to the family Bru-
chide, and both are to be regarded as pests. The
Pea Beetle (Bruchus pist), is black, with greyish-brown
down. The wing-cases are rather short, and the un-
covered portion of the abdomen is whitish, with dark
spots. To distinguish the Pea from the Bean Beetle
(B. rufimanus), the latter has the front legs all-red, and

=
57

BRITISH INSECTS

the abdomen tip does not bear any spots. The thighs
of the Pea Beetle are black. The eggs of the one species
are laid on young pea pods, and the other confines itself
to the bean. A round hole shows the place of emergence
after pupation. The fat, yellowish-white larva is
wrinkled. At first it has three pairs of very small legs,
but these eventually disappear.

The Chrysomelide mostly includes leaf-feeders, and
some of these are regarded as very serious pests. They
protect themselves by exuding an obnoxious juice, and
a Foreign species is so poisonous that the natives of
Ngamiland use it for poisoning their arrows.

The Mustard Beetle (Phedon cochlearie), is a common
British species which destroys the leaves of mustard,
and the Asparagus Beetle (Crioceris asparagi), is injurious
to the plant after which it is named. It has bluish-
green wing-cases bordered with red, and three yellow
spots on each, with a red thorax, and is about a quarter
of an inch in length. It eats, both as a larva and adult,
all parts of the asparagus plant, both above and below
ground. The brownish, oval eggs are laid in large
numbers during June on the plant attacked, and the
larve are actually ready to pupate in about a fortnight.
By then, of course, great damage has been done. The
adult hibernates among soil, or dead leaves, during
Winter.

The family Tenebrionide includes the Mealworm
Beetle (Tenebrio molitor), which is a well-known pest in

mills and granaries. It is a long, narrow rust-coloured
58

MEALWORM & CHURCHYARD BEETLES

insect, bearing a small head, pointed at the back. It
has three pairs of short legs on the thorax, and there are
two small appendages on the last segment. Captive
birds are very fond of the larve (called mealworms) of
this species, and any boy smitten with a desire to add
to his pocket money might do well to breed them, as
there is a good demand, and the supply seems to be
limited. I hand on the suggestion for what it may be
worth.

The Cellar Beetle (Blaps mucronata Fig. 22), belongs

|
} Mea .
Fig 22.) 4
Cellar Beetle.

to the Blaptide, and is so-called because of its fondness
for damp, underground haunts. It is dull dead-black
in colour, of sluggish habits, and gives off an unpleasant
odour. Its wings are not developed, and the elytra
are fastened together. A cousin of this species, known
as the Churchyard Beetle (Blaps mortisaga) is not so
common as the first-mentioned, and is less familiar in

the Southern Counties.
59

BRITISH INSECTS

The Tortoise-Bestle (Cassia viridis), belongs to the
Cassidide, and is an interesting insect because the elytra,
or wing-cases, remind one of the carapace, or shield,
of the four-legged creature after which it has been
popularly named. The egg is deposited in a cell of
remarkable honeycomb pattern, and is manufactured
by the female from a sticky substance obtained from
her own body. The larva has a pair of long tails which
are carried over the back, and it is rayed all round with
curious feathery appendages, and has dots on the sides.
The pupa has feathery appendages on the head, and
others protrude from the sides.

ORDER VI. NEUROPTERA, OR NERVE-WINGED
INSECTS

So-called because their wings are covered with a
network of nerves—thus Nerve-Winged—the insects
belonging to this Order may be divided into six Sub-
Orders thus :—1. Corrodentia (Book Lice), 2. Plecoptera
(Stone Flies), 3. Szalida (Alder Flies), 4. Planipennia
(Scorpion Flies and Lacewing), 5. Ephemeroptera (May-
Flies), and 6. Odonata (Dragon Flies). Outside Britain
there are the wonderful White-Ants, or Termites, which
come under the Sub-Order Jsoptera, but with these
60

Pirate II.

. Yellow-banded Humble Bee. 2. Lacewing Fly. 3. Hornet.
4. Giant-tailed Sawfly.

BOOK-LICE

remarkable creatures and others we are not here con-
cerned. We now have to consider the chief character-
istics of each Sub-Order mentioned, and to select re-
presentative forms of each.

1. SUB-ORDER CORRODENTIA (BOOK Lice)

These are small, soft-bodied insects which have an
incomplete metamorphosis. As a rule, the head is
somewhat large, and bears conspicuous eyes. The
long antenne are made up of about a dozen joints.
When wings are present, there are two pairs, those at
the rear being smaller than the front pair. When at
rest, the latter are held in a roof-like position. Some
species are altogether wingless. A favourite haunt 1s
a trunk, or branch, of a tree, others are fond of dead
wood.

A common species that may serve as an example to
represent this Sub-Order is known as Atropos divinatoria.
I do not know its English name. It is often found in
damp houses, and is a nuisance in Museums where there
are specimens of plants and insects. Like the Death-
Watch Beetle already dealt with, this insect makes a
tapping, or ticking, noise, which is probably a love-
signal as in the former case.

F 61

BRITISH INSECTS

2. SUB-ORDER PLECOPTERA (STONE FLIEs)

The Stone Flies belong to the family Perlida, and they
also have an incomplete metamorphosis. They are
fair-sized insects, with long slender antenne. It should
be noted that the hind wings are larger than the front
pair. The larve are water-dwellers, and they subsist
upon both decayed vegetable substances and animal
food. When the larva is full-grown it crawls to land,
the skin splits along the back, and the perfect insect
emerges. ‘This latter frequents trees, and is very active.

3. SuB-ORDER SIALIDA (ALDER FLIES)

The Alder Fly (Sialis lutaria, Figs. 23 and 24), is in-
cluded in this Sub-Order, and unlike the foregoing, it
has complete metamorphoses. ‘The adult has the head
embedded in the prothorax, and it has long and slender
antenne. The two pairs of wings are of different
shape. As a rule the eggs are laid on various plants
near water, and as soon as the larva hatches, it makes
for the liquid element, where it spends its time in the
mud feeding upon small aquatic creatures. The body
62

THE ALDER FLY

of the larva tapers almost to a point. It is prominently
segmented, and bears feathery appendages on each side,
in addition to the legs. When ready to leave the water,
the larva crawls to land and conceals itself in the ground.

Fig-2s. Alder Fly.

Alder Ely Larva.
(Enlarged.)

There it pupates, and eventually emerges as the perfect
insect. It has a heavy flight, and in appearance is not
unlike the well-known Caddis Fly. But it does not
fold its wings longitudinally, and may thus be distin-
guished.

BRITISH INSECTS

4. SuB-ORDER PLANIPENNIA (SCORPION FLIES AND LAcE-
WINGS)

This large Sub-Order contains a great many different
families both at home and abroad, but we can only hope
to give place here to a few of these.

The Scorpion Fly (Panorpa communis, Fig. 25), belongs

Fig 2s Scorpion Fly

to the family Panorpide, which scientific name has been
accorded because of the curious end of the abdomen
in the male. ‘The eggs are laid under ground, and the
larva feeds upon decaying vegetable matter, or rotten
wood. When full-fed, it burrows deeper in the soil,
and emerges after about a fortnight in the pupal state.
It is then polished black, with yellow legs, and trans-
parent wings having brown spots. Although an active
species, and perhaps fearsome-looking, the Scorpion

‘Fly is immune from harm to human folk.
64

SNAKE AND LACEWING FLIES

The Snake Fly (Raphidia cognata), next claims atten-
tion, and is sometimes known as the Camel Fly. It
belongs to the Raphidiidz. Between the head and
thorax there is a long “ neck ”’ which affords the insect
much freedom of movement. ‘The popular name is
derived from the snake-like motion of the head and
neck. The adult haunts water, but the larva makes
its home under the bark of trees. The latter, as well
as the former, is somewhat of a contortionist, as it
throws its body into very curious attitudes.

The Osmylide are delicate and beautiful insects of
wide distribution, one species of which (Osmylus chrysops)
may be discovered in the New Forest, but we must
pass on to a closely allied family, the Chrysopide, our
choice of species being the Lacewing Fly (Chrysopa
perla) (Fig. 26). The delicate green colour, and equally

Fig.2s. Lacewing Fly.

delicate structure, of the gauzy wings of this really
beautiful creature help to make it one of the loveliest
objects in Nature. Small wonder the names of Lace-
wing and Golden-Eyes should be conferred, as the
wonderful wings and bright golden, or coppery, eyes

65

BRITISH INSECTS

deserve all the praise that can be bestowed. The wings,
when at rest, are held longitudinally, and the thin taper-
‘ing body, and frail constitution, of the Lacewing will
at once be patent to the lucky discoverer. It is a fre-
quent visitor to our gardens, and to be suddenly con-
fronted with a specimen at rest reveals “‘a thing of
beauty and joy for ever.” It is curious that such a
lovely insect should give off an offensive smell when
handled. ‘The white eggs are laid in batches, and each
one is attached to a leaf, or other object, by a long thread.
The larva is a mark on green-fly, and should be highly
encouraged. After having its fill, the larva spins a
round cocoon in which it passes the pupal stage of its
existence, finally emerging as the beautiful and useful
creature we have discovered it to be.

5. SuB-ORDER EPHEMEROPTERA (MAYFLIES)

Also of delicate structure, the Mayfly (Ephemera
vulgaris, Figs. 27 and 28), has the hind wings much
smaller than the front pair, very short antenne, and
two or three long streamers, or tails, at the extremity
of the body. But it is the life-history, rather than the
anatomy, of the insect that is so wonderful. Shortly

stated, this is as follows. ‘The eggs are dropped into
66

THE MAYFLY

the water by the short-lived adult female, and those
that are not devoured by creatures who lie in wait for
such tasty provender, sink to the bottom of the pond,
or stream. In due course the egg hatches into a larva

Fig. 27, Mayfly.
(Nymph.)

which passes its days in a circular hole in the bank of
the water. Thereafter the nymph emerges, and this
has feathery antennz, and a triple “ tail,’ with a number

of short bristles on either side of the abdomen. The
67

BRITISH INSECTS

nymph crawls out of the water when full-grown, the
skin enveloping it at once splits asunder, and the winged
insect comes forth. This all happens very quickly,
and when the rise of the Mayfly takes place, the observer
is able to watch at close quarters this magic transforma-
tion. All is not complete even when the insect is clear
of its watery home, as another skin has to be discarded
before the perfect state is reached. For a few brief
moments the winged form pursues its airy course down-
stream. Many fall by the way, to be devoured by
trout and other fish, and those that do succeed in keeping
on the wing soon live their little day and cease to be.
But some, at least, are spared long enough to mate and
deposit their eggs, so that the future of the race is assured.
The fully-developed Mayfly has greenish-yellow wings,
with dark spots. The body is pale yellow, with some
dark lemon streaks on the lower part, and an almost
black thorax. It is interesting to notice that, although
it takes at least two years to acquire the adult state, the
perfect insect only enjoys a brief flight in the sunshine,
and then passes away. The larva feeds mostly upon
vegetable matter, but some species are partly carnivorous.
When the “rise” does occur, large numbers may be
observed emerging if the right moment is struck. I
have seen the air, ground, and water thickly populated
with the insects and their old nymphal shrouds, and
perhaps of all the amazing episodes associated with these
forms of life, the rise and fall of the Mayfly is one of

the most entrancing in the whole realm of Nature.
68

DRAGON FLIES

6. SuB-OrDER OpoNaTA (DRAGON FLIks)

Dragon Flies, either because of the forepart of their
English name, or their so-called fearsome appearance,
are not at all well liked, in addition to which they are
popularly supposed to “sting,” indeed at least one
British species is dubbed ‘“‘ Horse-Stinger”’ (Fig. 29)-

Fig 29. < Horse Slinger.

To those who know them, however, and are acquainted
with their wonderful life-histories, these remarkable
creatures of water and air make a strong appeal. ‘That
Dragon Flies are of ancient lineage is proved by fossil
remains that have been discovered, and both the larval

69

BRITISH INSECTS

and adult forms have been found in a fossil state. Re-
mains of an insect allied to the present creatures has
also been recorded from carboniferous strata, which
actually measured two feet in expanse of wings, so that
since that far-off time insects have greatly decreased
in size. The oval-shaped eggs are deposited in the
water, and in due course the hungry and voracious
larva makes its appearance. It is one of the terrors of
the pond, or stream, in which it resides, and is dull
grey, or brownish-green, in colour. It is the possessor
of a curious two-jointed “‘ mask,’’ which can be tucked
away, or extended, at will. On the outer joint a pair of
strong jaws are situate, and these are capable of great
execution upon the body of a victim. Woe betide
any unwary creature upon whom the predatory larva
decides to prey. Although it crawls sluggishly on the
bed of the water, the larva has the power of forcing its
way through the liquid element by means of a remarkable
contrivance which runs through the centre of its body.
The larva is very unlike the adult, and when the nymphal
state is reached only the presence of rudimentary wings
distinguishes it from the larva. When ready to emerge,
the nymph leaves its watery home, climbs up the stem
of an adjacent plant, rail, or post by the water-side,
and waits for the greatest event of its mysterious life.
The skin splits, and after a series of efforts and gymnas-
tic performances, the perfect insect emerges. During
these evolutions it turns, at least, one complete somer-

sault, and only those who have been fortunate enough to
70

DRAGON FLIES

witness the transformation can have any idea of its
romantic interest and fascination. At last the Dragon
Fly frees itself from inside the cuticle, or old skin, but
clings tightly to it for anchorage and support, whilst
its body and wings lengthen almost before one’s eyes.
Gradually the body and wings attain their full extent,
the outer covering and the wings harden on contact
with the air, the latter are then spread cross-wise for

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the first time, in readiness for flight, and away goes this
insect-dragon of the air upon its initial voyage through
space (Fig. 30). It is a dramatic moment to witness,
and worth going a long way to see. Some species are

slow fliers, others possess ease, speed, and facility. To
(p!

BRITISH INSECTS

see them hovering, skimming, somersaulting, or planing
down is quite a delightful occupation, as also to watch
them in nuptial flight around the margins, or over the
surface of a favourite pond. Both in the larval and
adult states a carnivorous diet is partaken of, and men-
tion should also be made of the large goggle eyes made
up of a large number of separate lenses or facets, and of
the beautiful colours some of the species display. Some
have thick bodies, others very slim. In some species
both pairs of wings are more or less similar, in others the
wings are alike. In the former, the hind wings are
enlarged near the base, in the latter both pairs are equally
narrowed at the base. The delicacy of the wings is
not the least remarkable feature, and certainly not the
least attractive.

There are over forty British species, and of these
the more familiar that may be mentioned are the fol-
lowing :—

Libellula depressa, Anax imperator, Afschna xyanea,

Calopteryx virgo, Pyrrhosoma nymphula, Enallagma
cyathigerum.

72

THE CADDIS FLY

ORDER VI. TRICHOPTERA, OR CADDIS
FLIES

These insects are divided into seven different families,
but it will serve our purpose to set out a few salient
features, and illustrate our remarks by a consideration

Fig. 31, Caddis Fly Larva.
(Twice natural size.)

of the life-story of the familiar Caddis Fly (Phryganea
grandis, Figs. 31 and 32) known by sight to all those
whose country expeditions in Summer take them to

73

BRITISH INSECTS

pond or stream where this insect-denizen loves to dwell.
There are more than 170 British species. The adult
has long, slender antennz and legs, the front wings are
more or less covered with hair, and held roof-like when
at rest. The hind wings are less leathery, and are heid
pleated when at rest. Trichoptera means “ hairy-
winged,” from the Greek trichos=hair, and pteron=-a
wing. ‘The eggs are laid in water, and the larva, soon
after hatching, prepares for itself a case, or tube, in which
its soft, grub-like body can be protected. Sometimes
these cases are made of small pieces of sticks or leaves,
at others they are composed of fine grains of sand glued
together. Others bear upon them small water-snails
in which their owners are also contained. The tube
nicely fits the larva, and is just a little longer each end
than the creature’s own body. The tail end appears to be
sealed up, but the front door remains open until such
time as the larva is ready to pupate. The reason for
this is that the latter is thus able to protrude its head
and legs so as to crawl about and procure food. It
fastens itself to stones, submerged posts, piles, and other
objects. ‘To dislodge one from its habitation requires
some force, as it has two strong hooks which enable it
to secure a firm grip inside. It pupates within the
case, taking the precaution to close the front entrance
before this takes place, and when the almost complete
creature is ready to emerge, it swims to the surface
by means of its two middle legs, which are fashioned
like oars. This accomplished, the skin splits down the
74

ORDER LEPIDOPTERA

back, and the imago is free. After emergence, the flies
may be found clinging to herbage surrounding water,
and Swallows and Martins have a rare old feast picking
them off in double-quick time. It has a somewhat
laboured flight, and this in spite of the strong wings.
The larva is a vegetarian in diet.

ORDER VIII. LEPIDOPTERA, OR BUTTERFLIES
AND MOTHS

This large order of scale-winged insects has already
been dealt with in a separate volume of “‘ The Abbey
Nature Books,’ and is merely included here to show
the place occupied in the classification adopted. ‘The
reader desirous of obtaining information concerning
our British Butterflies and Moths is, therefore, referred
to the fourth volume in this Series, where a large number
of commoner species are dealt with and fully illustrated
in both colour and black and white.

BRITISH INSECTS

ORDER IX. DIPTERA, OR FLIES, MOSQUITOES,
MIDGES, AND FLEAS

Comparatively few entomologists specialise in the
insects contained in this important Order, and there
are any number of new species to be found for the
searching. Many are very small, and only the in-
dustrious collector is likely to discover them. One
indefatigable worker in our own district—Mr. F. W.
Edwards, B.A., F.E.S.—has not only added a large
number of new species to our Hertfordshire fauna, but
has also put on record several kinds new to Britain.
Flies and Fleas, as we may popularly call them, are not
alluring in their attractiveness, but are rather despised
creatures into whose domestic affairs the average in-
dividual takes precious good care not to intrude. How-
beit, we must include them here, so as to carry out our
scheme of treatment satisfactorily. They pass through
a complete change from egg to imago, the adult has a
slender attachment between the head and thorax, and
the thorax and abdomen are fused together. The
larva is, as a rule, legless, and bears a small head, but
this does not hold good with regard to that of the Gnat,
which has a large head and well-developed mouth, and
other parts of quite a different character.

The Common Flea (Pulex irritans, Figs. 33 to 36),
76

THE COMMON FLEA

is a fit representative of the Pulicida, and the illustrations
set out below will convey a better idea of its meta-
morphoses than a detailed description. It breeds in
neglected dirty houses, and its general appearance is
only too well known. Professor J. Arthur Thomson

Fig. 33.

Fig. 34. Fig. 36. Fig. 35.

Fig. 33, Egg. Fig. 34, Larva. Fig. 35, Pupa. Fig. 36,
Imago of Common Flea.

facetiously calls it “‘ The Nimble Flea,” and tells us
that, of the 500 known species, nearly one-tenth of
these (50) are found in Britain. In structure, activity,
mode of existence, piercing and sucking apparatus, and

the rest this energetic little insect is of extreme interest,
G 17

BRITISH INSECTS

even if possessed of most obnoxious habits. It even
excited the attention of one of the world’s greatest men,
Socrates, who stopped to enquire how far it could jump.
As a matter of fact, we are told it can jump four inches
into the air and about a foot on the level. As Prof.
Thomson says: “‘ It is quite far enough.” Pulex irritans
is found tenanting the wily old Badger, as well as human-
kind, the eggs being laid among the animal’s fur, or
in dusty cracks and crevices of houses. The active
larva—a small legless grub which moves by the aid of
bristles—lives on organic matter, and after twice casting
its skin, the pupal state is reached. In due course the
perfect Flea is ready to emerge from the cocoon-envelope,
but it often waits until someone, or something, “ pulls
the trigger of activity,” and thus releases it. Minus
wings, the Flea must certainly be regarded as a bit of a
masterpiece, and its ‘‘ muscular explosiveness verges
on the miraculous.” Nevertheless, it is a great nuisance
and a serious pest, for, between 1896 and 1911, upwards
of seven million people died in India from Bubonic
Plague, mainly through the bite of a Rat-Flea (Xeno-
psylla cheopsis) which transfers the virulent microbe
from rat to rat, and from rat to man. Flea-control
and Rat-control are essential, especially in our ports,
harbours, congested cities, and other places. But we
must not be tempted to pursue the subject further,
and a mere list of names and usual hosts would occupy
more space than we have at disposal.

The Cecidomyiide consist of a family of very small
78

GALL MIDGES AND GNATS

and delicate insects known as Gall Midges. The larva
of a number of them are gall-makers, producing swellings
in the stems of plants, and another species—Contarinia
tritici, or Corn Midge—does much harm to oats and
barley. It has a cousin called the Hessian Fly (Ceci-
domyia destructor), which is also a grain destroyer, but
being subject in England to various parasites, its numbers
are kept within respectable limits.

Of the Bibionide—or Dung Flies—whose larve live
on decaying vegetable matter, and also consume living
roots—the St. Mark’s Fly (Bzbio Marct) occurs in large
numbers in Spring. It is all-black, and has long hairy
legs.

Gnats belong to the Culicide, and the Spanish word
Mosquito is frequently used instead. Much attention
has been devoted to these insects, because of their un-
welcome habit of drawing blood from the human body,
and as carriers of the fatal germ of malaria. Mosquito
brigades have had to be organised to combat their
energies, and stirring tales might be told of how man
has eventually conquered. The making of the Panama
Canal was only made possible after ways and means
had been discovered for dealing with these small, but
death-dealing parasites.

The Common Gnat (Culex pipiens, Fig. 37), passes
its early life in still water, and the filthier the better.
Hence, all standing water should, as far as possible,
be done away with, and the breeding quarters reduced

to a minimum. The larva floats on the surface with
79

BRITISH INSECTS

the head held downwards and the tail extruded. It
moves about by jerky motions, sweeps into its mouth
microscopic food by means of a profusion of hairs, and
maintains itself at the surface (the creature itself being
heavier than water) by floating on the surface-film with
which the pond, or other water, is covered. ‘The pupa
is quite unlike the larva, being almost a fully-formed
adult, though shrouded in a transparent skin. It now

Fig o7.° G Great

extrudes its head instead of the tail, as the air-tubes
have become exactly reversed. Very soon the pupal
skin splits along the back, and the perfect insect makes
good its escape. The adult male may be known by its
bushy feelers, and it is only the female which possesses
a piercing apparatus. She deposits her eggs in the water,
and these, being sticky, adhere to one another. ‘Two
to three hundred of these will be laid at a “ sitting,”
and when all are fastened together, a little raft is formed
80

CRANE AND HOVER FLIES
which is then set free on its adventurous voyage. The
wing of one of these insects is a very beautiful object
for the microscope, but the creature is an inveterate
enemy of mankind, and must be dealt with as such,
no matter how much its wonder of form and life are
regarded.

Our old friend the Crane Fly, or Daddy Longlegs,
(Tipula oleracea) finds a place among the Tipulide.
The tapering body, large gauzy wings, and long legs,
as well as the blundering gait, are familiar enough to
all country dwellers. It affects grassy districts in par-
ticular, the female laying her eggs among the roots of
this, and other plants. The hard larva is called a
Leather-jacket, and he it is who does the mischief.
The female may be known from her mate by having
a pointed extremity (the ovipositor) at the end of her
body.

Hover-Flies (Syrphide) are both beneficial and de-
structive. Some of their larve feed upon aphids, or
green-fly, and are stated to be leech-like in form. Two
common species that may be mentioned are Syrphus
albostriatus and S. ribesii, The habit of the adult in
hovering, or hawking, in the air with rapidly vibrating
wings accounts for the popular name. I have noticed
that, day after day, in Summer, a certain Hover Fly
may be seen in more or less the same place—its happy
hunting ground apparently—and its quick movements
and marvellous wing-vibrations never fail to excite my

interest, admiration, and wonder. There are other
81

BRITISH INSECTS

species whose larve live in filthy water, on excrement,
and other insanitary places. There are others (Volu-
cella) which prefer taking up their abode in the nests
of humble-bees and wasps, and others again (Merodon)
which feed upon narcissus bulbs, and perpetrate con-
siderable damage. There are a number of dipterous
flies belonging to the Family Tachinide, many of the
larvee of which are, like the very large family of Ichneu-
mons, parasitic in caterpillars. ‘There is, however, this
difference that whereas the female Ichneumon Fly
pierces the skin of the caterpillar, and at once deposits
her eggs inside the host, the Tachinide have no ovipositor
with which to make the puncture, and thus deposit
their eggs on the outside. The larva, on hatching,
however, soon eats through the skin, and works its way
to the interior upon which it feeds.

Of the House Fly (Musca domestica), and Blow Fly
(Musca corvina)—both of which belong to the Family
Muscide—it is only necessary to say that, whereas they
and their numerous congeners act as scavengers and
sanitary-agents, there is another side to the picture as,
feeding very often in distasteful places and then visiting
our own food-stuffs, they are not altogether friends
worthy of encouragement. They do some good, they
also perpetrate much harm. Decaying matter soon
attracts females to the spot, eggs are laid, grubs soon
hatch, and thrive upon the filth that is provided. The
general appearance of these familiar creatures does not
call for mention.

82

THE BOT FLIES

Although the Family Cistride, or Bot Flies, is not
extensive, it is too important to be overlooked as it
includes at least three species which are parasitic upon
the horse, ox, and sheep. These are the Horse Bot
Fly (Gastrophilus equi), Ox Warble Fly (Hypoderma
bovis and lineatum), and Sheep Nostril Fly (Gsirus ovts).
The larva, which is a parasite upon the horse, finds its
way into the stomach, those on the backs of oxen are
found under the skin, and the one that attacks the placid
sheep is discovered around the nostrils of the fleecy-
clad animal.

The Horse Bot somewhat resembles a bee in
appearance. It is brownish in colour and hairy, and
has a stout body. The larve feed upon the mem-
brane of the horse’s stomach, and attach themselves
by hooks. As many as a thousand larvae have been
found in a single horse.

The Ox Bot is black, with white hairs on the head,
thorax, and tip of abdomen. It also is very hairy.
Having no mouth, the adult insect takes no food. It
is the larva which does the damage. ‘The mature insect
only flies in sunshine, and may then be seen attacking the
legs of cattle, whereon the eggs are chiefly laid. The
larva is licked into the mouth by the beast attacked,
but eventually makes its way through the flesh of its
host to the back.

The Sheep Nostril Fly is yellowish-brown, with black
and silvery-white hairs on the abdomen. The female

may produce either eggs or living larvae, and these
83

BRITISH INSECTS

are deposited in the nostrils of the sheep, and cause
much suffering to the poor inoffensive animal. Great
irritation is caused, and the symptom of attack is con-
tinuous sneezing. ‘There are still more parasites upon
mammals and birds in the group of dipterous insects
known as the Hippoboscide. It is only possible to give
the names of four species by way of illustration, and

Fig. 38, Biting Midge. (Greatly Eniarged.)

these are the Forest Fly (Hippobosca equina) found on
horses; Lipoptena cervt on deer; Sheep Ked (Melo-
phagus ovinus) on sheep, and Stenopteryx hirundinis
which attaches itself to the gentle House Martin that
warbles so pleasantly when on its nest under the eaves.

Midges, especially towards sundown and near water,

are a great nuisance. Small they may be, but capable,
84

MIDGES AND GAD FLIES

nevertheless, of great irritation as they attack the face
or hands of the wayfarer. I have often been tormented
with this obnoxious little irritant in Scotland where,
of course, it is as difficult to get away from water as
from a motor car along the nearest highway. One of
the commonest species is Culicoides pulicaris, which is
shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 38. It is only one of a
number of True Midges belonging to the Family Chiro-
nomide, whose unwelcome attentions are known to
almost everyone.

Of the Tabanida, or Gad Flies, we may select for
brief reference the Blinding Breeze Fly (Chrysops coecu-
tiens), Rain Breeze Fly, or Clegg (Haematopota pluvialis),
and the Autumnal Breeze Fly (Tabanus autumnalis,
Fig. 39). ‘The first named is so-called because it attacks

Fig 39 .
Aufumnal Breeze Fly.

cattle and horses around the eyes. It has a broad band
of brown across the centre of the wings, and a dull green
abdomen which, instead of being rounded, or pointed,
ends abruptly. The Clegg is a grey insect with mottled
wings, which, when one is in the vicinity of water, will
sometimes settle on one’s clothing, or exposed part of

85

BRITISH INSECTS

the body. It is a great blood-sucker, and should be
studiously avoided. The third species mentioned above
is a Close relative of the Gad Fly (Tabanus bovinus), and
both are the source of much annoyance to cattle and
horses. YT. autumnalis is co-called because it appears
in Autumn. It is dark brown in colour, and has a
more pointed abdomen than the other two Breeze Flies
already referred to.

The Humble Bee Fly (Bombylius major, Fig. 40), is

Humble - | Bee Fly.

SN Za
LV. tA
i 7

2

<li
<< * q all
~<a }

worthy of brief mention. It is a bee-like insect belong-
ing to the Family Bombylidez, and seems to be fond of
haunting shady woodsides and similar places, where it
pursues an energetic life, darting hither and thither
with its long tongue fully extended, as shown in our
illustration of this species. ‘The larva lives in the nests
of humble bees, and the likeness of the adult to the
host is probably of much assistance to it,

86

THE RED MEADOW ANT

ORDER X. HYMENOPTERA, OR ANTS, BEES,
WASPS, SAWFLIES, ICHNEUMONS, AND
OTHERS

We now reach the last Order of British Insects, the
Hymenoptera, and perhaps the most important of all.
More than one half of those with which we are con-
cerned belong to the Group Aculeata, commencing with
the Ants, and ending with the Bees. All these insects
are Stingers, and the remainder (from the Ruby Wasp
to the Ichneumons) are Non-Stingers.

Of the communal instincts of some of these hymenop-
terous insects, and the solitary habits of others, as also
the economic uses of several of them, we have something
to record later, and may at once concentrate attention upon
the Heterogyna which embraces the Social Ants, of which
there are over two thousand known species. The Red
Meadow Ant (Myrmica rubra) is the first representative
which calls for notice. Its name tells of its colour, and
it is one of the most familiar. Ants are social creatures,
living in communities, but as an individual the Ant is
probably not highly-organised in intelligence. Yet, all
work together co-operatively for the benefit of the
whole, the welfare of the community being the impelling
motive. The labour is divided, each one has its allotted
task, and the concern with which invasion, or distur-

87

BRITISH INSECTS

bance, is regarded will be known to all those who watch
these insects at work and play. With few exceptions,
there are three kinds of individuals in each community,
made up of male, female, and worker. The latter is
an imperfect female. This last-named has not alto-
gether Jost the power of egg-production, but she cannot
be fertilised, and only produces males. The male has
wings, so also has the female during the nuptial flight,
after which they are cast or bitten off, but the worker is
wingless. ‘The smal! white larva is legless, the eggs are
of microscopic size, and the pupa is the so-called “ ant-
egg.” It may, or may not, be enclosed in a cocoon,
according to the species. The food of Ants mostly
consists of insects, fruit, nectar from plants, and the
honey-dew secreted by aphids. Where one finds the
latter there, sure enough, Ants will be in attendance.
The worker seeks assiduously for food, and has the
power of regurgitating a part to feed the inmates of the
Ant-hill. ‘These inmates need not all be Ants, as slaves
and guests are both given apartments in the busy City.
Ants are of some service in fertilising flowers, but not
nearly to the same extent as Bees, as they do not travel
so far afield, and more often restrict attention to a small
area. Cross-fertilisation is, therefore, infrequent. ‘The
present species constructs large hillocks of earth, and
the freshly-worked soil is plainly visible near the summit
in early Spring. In Winter the inhabitants work their
way well below ground, but at the call of the sun they
approach nearer the surface. When the community
88

SOCIAL AND SOLITARY ANTS

becomes overpopulated, a swarm will leave the hillock,
the females become mated, and a fresh colony is founded.
The Green Woodpecker is a great enemy of this species,
and its cousin of the wood, and by means of his long
sticky tongue he soon levies toll upon them.

The Black, or Garden, Ant (Lasius niger), House
Ant (Myrmica molesta), and Yellow Ant (Lasius flavus),
are other common species, and mention must also be
made of the Wood Ant (Formica rufa, Fig. 41) which

Fig 4yl
Wood An, male.

inhabits fir and other woods, and constructs a large
hillock consisting of soil, pieces of twigs, and other
material. When the community is at its height, and
its citizens are all busily occupied, a wonderful sight is
presented when one examines the countless numbers
of which the hillock, or home, is made up.

The aforementioned are, it is almost unnecessary to
point out, social creatures, but in the Fossores we make
acquaintance with their solitary cousins. The Solitary
Ant (Mutilla europea), and Digger, or Sand Wasp (Amono-
phila campestris), are two of these, and there are only

two kinds of individuals (male and female) in each
89

BRITISH INSECTS

species. The male only has wings, and these are not

folded. The Digger Wasp preys upon grasshoppers.
The Diploptera, or Wasps, includes several unpopular

insects, of which the Hornet (Vespa crabro, Fig. 42)

a
Fig +2. Hornet.

may fitly be chosen as first representative. This fine
insect is our largest British Wasp, and it should be
remembered that, in addition to preying upon other
insects, it does not damage fruit. Of course it is killed
at sight, and whilst it is a formidable creature to en-
counter if exasperated, the fact remains that it occupies
an important place in the scale of life, and need not
be altogether condemned. The body is handsomely
banded with black and yellow, and the large size at
once distinguishes it. It places its large nest in hollow
trees or buildings, and seems to be restricted to the
Southern Counties. The nest is made of rotten wood,
and is much yellower in colour than the more familiar
grey ones of the smaller and commoner species.

What may be termed the Larger Common Wasp is
90

THE LARGER COMMON WASP

Vespa germanica. It is so well known by sight that
familiarity breeds contempt, and whilst most books
will probably say that its life-history is well known, we
often doubt the veracity of this statement. The build-
ing of a nest by the Queen in early Spring, the founding
of a colony, the industry of the workers, the use of the
drone, and the amazing structure of the completed home,
are all very wonderful. ‘The tiers of cells one above the
other containing the eggs, grubs, or pupz, the little
pedestals which are placed in position so as to separate
one tier from another, the lightness in weight, yet
strength and stability of the nest, are all of absorbing
interest. Then, too, there is the collecting of food by
the workers and the feeding of the hungry grubs, the
aeration of the entrance hole by the drones, who seem
told off for this special purpose, and the great industry
and cleverness displayed in finding, tearing off, and
carrying building material which consists of vegetable
fibre. When the Queen Wasp first completes her
nest unaided it is only about the size of an egg-cup,
but she soon deposits some eggs, and when these have
hatched, and the larve pupated and emerged, she at
once receives assistance from her own children in the
gathering of further material, and subsequent enlarge-
ment of the home. A piece of Wasp comb containing
grubs and pupz was brought to my room at Letchworth
Museum one day, and I placed it on a window-ledge
inside the room. Next day I found that one or two
Wasps were emerging from the cells, and it was interest-

91

BRITISH INSECTS

ing to watch their struggles to be free. They bit away
the sealed-up portion at the top, and then crawled out
as liberated prisoners. They soon showed signs of
great restlessness, so that I was tempted to open the
window and let them fly away. Out of the window they
flew, but to my amazement they returned in double-
quick time, and commenced to feed the fat white grubs
who seemed to anticipate their coming! As others
emerged, so the interesting development proceeded
under my own eyes. I opened the window each day
and the workers flew to and fro during the day, and
returned each night. If, by chance, any had not re-
turned at dusk, I found them outside the window next
morning waiting to be admitted. Eventually -all were
reared, and the little colony left the fragment of comb
emptied of all its contents as a memento of a thrilling
episode of insect-life. Although watched at close
quarters, the Wasps were far too occupied to attempt to
sting anyone, and a great many visitors to my room
witnessed the little episode described. The grubs are
fed on insect-food, but the adults appear to possess a
sweet “‘ tooth,” and do a good deal of harm in the season
to ripe fruit. This species makes its nest underground,
hidden away from vulgar gaze. Hence its domestic
affairs are little understood, or appreciated. Only the
entrance hole can be seen from outside, and if destruc-
tion is desired the best method is to use cyanide of
potassium, either in solid state or solution.

The Wood Wasp (Vespa sylvestris) usually suspends
92

WOOD, TREE, AND MUD WASPS

its nest from the branch of a bush or tree. We had
one in Letchworth Museum which was built in a goose-
berry bush at the time the fruit was on the branch, and
this created a great deal of interest. But the most
attractive example of an exposed Wasp’s nest I have
ever seen was suspended in a birch bush over water
along the west bank of the pretty Crinan Canal, near
Ardrishaig, Argyllshire, in September, 1922. I observed
the beautiful tapered structure when sailing up the
canal to Crinan on board S.S. Linnet, and several
passengers whose attention I called to it remarked that
it was like a small Chinese-lantern. When I walked
back along the waterway later in the day, I had a closer
inspection of my treasure. I found it was most cleverly
suspended from a pliant branch right over the water,
and that the occupants were busily going in and out
through a hole at the base. I was much tempted to
dislodge the nest, but hardly cared to venture without
first dealing with the owners, and I had reluctantly to
leave it behind.

The Tree Wasp (Vespa norvegica) always suspends
its nest from the branches of trees and bushes, but the
Mud Wasp (Odynerus parietum) which, as will be seen,
belongs to a different genus, adopts entirely different
methods. The cell walls are built of mud, and the
nest, as a rule, is placed in any suitable hole. I know
of three curious places, one in the centre of a reel of
cotton, a second in a blind-tassel, and a third was placed

in a roll of canvas, the group of cells being attached
H 93

BRITISH INSECTS

together on the flat surface of the material. The mud
had hardened like cement, and each cell was well cal-
culated to stand considerable pressure.

The Anthophila, or Flower-Lovers (Bees), next claim
attention, and the first of these is the Leaf-Cutter Bee
(Megachile centuncularis, Fig. 43). There are a very

od

3

Fig +3 Leaf- cullerBee.

large number of species, and all of them burrow in
earth, or soft wood, and line same with the leaves, or
petals, of flowers. The Leaf-Cutter Bee is a small
black insect relieved with white down, and the circular
pieces of leaves cut from rose and other trees will pro-
bably have been noticed. This is the work of this
species. The pieces are neatly cut off by the aid of
the Bee’s long, four-toothed mandibles, and are col-
lected as soon as a burrow has been excavated ready to
receive them. Piece after piece is carried to the burrow
or tunnel, and a series of thimble-like cells are eventually
formed, each cell fitting into another until there is a
row of them. In each cell an egg is laid, with a small
cake of honey and pollen for the larva to feed upon
when hatched. ‘There may be eight or ten of these
94

THE HUMBLE BEES

thimble-cells all fitting into one another, and when
seen for the first time the observer may well be puzzled
as to the identity of the maker. ‘This is a solitary species
of Wild Bee.

Of Humble Bees there are many and_ various.
They are a characteristic feature of the English country-
side, and although often discovered in a semi-stupified
condition (due to a super-abundance of nectar), there
is something about this gay and fussy insect-reveller
which is particularly attractive.

The Yellow-Banded Humble Bee (Bombus terrestris,
see Coloured Plate II.), may be chosen to represent its
useful race, as the Genus Bombus is of prime necessity
in the fertilisation of flowers which require visits from
long-tongued insects such as these. Clover depends
entirely upon fertilisation by these indispensable agents,
of which there are at least eighteen British species.
The droning flight, fussy mannerisms, great industry,
love of gardens (especially in Autumn when the Michael-
mas daisies are in blossom), and variety of dress, are
obvious features of interest. The present species usually
makes its nest below ground, and the cone-shaped cells
are massed together in a very different manner to those
of the insects recently described. The male Humble
Bee does not possess a sting.

Disused birds’ nests are sometimes resorted to as a
nesting site by some kinds of Humble Bees, and I have
known of one (and also that of a Wasp) which was placed
in a bird-nesting box. The last of the stinging insects

95

BRITISH INSECTS

to find a place in this volume is one of the most familiar
and beloved of all. This is the Hive, or Honey Bee,
(Apis mellifica, Figs. 44, 45, and 46). Of the usefulness

Tig 46 Worker.
The Honey By cer

of this species in fertilising flowers, and producing
honey, little need be added. Of its industry, and won-
derful communal and homing instincts, much might
be written. Highly intelligent, and of great industrial
importance, the Hive Bee has for centuries made a
direct appeal to those who, in other directions, exhibit
precious little interest in the world of insect-life. It is
probable that, as a result, more is known about these
little busy-bodies than any other insect, and if, as a
one-time neighbour of mine has well said (the late Pro-
fessor L. C. Miall, F.R.S.), there are still problems to
96

HIVE, OR HONEY, BEE

be solved concerning Apis mellifica, it is because its
life-history and economy are of unparalleled complexity.
The colony consists of Queen (Female), Drone (Male),
and Worker (Imperfect Female), as shown in Figs. 44,
45, and 46. The Queen deposits her eggs in the honey-
comb, the egg being long and oval in shape. ‘The grub,
as in the Wasp, is fed by the Worker-Bee with a tasty
sweetmeat-mixture of honey and pollen. Upon this,
supplied in profusion, the grubs fatten and wax ex-
ceedingly, changing their skins as occasion demands,
and becoming full-fed in about a week. The cell is
then sealed up with a porous cap capable of admitting
air, a cocoon is spun by the larva, or grub, and in due
course pupation takes place and eventually emergence
is signalled. ‘The Queen may be known by her longer
body, the Drone by its stout body and large compound
eyes, and the Worker is the smallest of the three. The
last-named has pollen-baskets upon its legs, and these
will have been noticed laden with goods ready for de-
livery as the energetic little creature has been seen
making its sweet pillage among the flowers. Only the
Queen and Worker possess a sting. Flowers are visited
for pollen and nectar, and, according to those in season,
so are visits made to them. Much might be written
from this point of view, such as the attractive properties
of heather and lime flowers, of crocuses in early Spring,
of apple and other fruit blossom. ‘The wax from which
the cells are so cleverly made is secreted by the Hive

Bee in a “ pocket,” situate on the under side of the
97

BRITISH INSECTS

abdomen, and the more the workers gorge themselves
with food, the greater the supply of wax that ensues.
The commencement of a comb is started by a single
individual, but very soon other helpers are near at hand.
Some cells are used as storehouses for pollen, others
are utilised for storing honey. The former are left
open, the latter are sealed up. Drone cells are larger
than the Worker ones, Queen cells are large and clumsy.
There is no waste of room or material. Economy is
practised in all departments, except that of food-supply.
The Queen, unlike many of her human prototypes, is
retiring and shy. She is just a Queen in her own right.
She dislikes pomp and ceremony, hates the light, and
keeps, for preference, to her own select apartment.
As a matter of fact, the Workers, as is fit and proper,
control the Bee-Community, and the Queen herself is
largely under their domain. ‘Twice in her life the
latter is roused to great activity. Mated she must be,
and after she has been produced, she takes a flight in
the air, and having met a husband, returns fertilised.
Thereafter, she does not again forsake her faithful sub-
jects until, or unless, she leaves the hive accompanied
by a swarm of followers. Ifa second Queen makes her
appearance there is a desperate conflict, and the weaker
goes under. Sometimes the Workers consider it neces-
sary to rear further Queens. If this happens, the old
Queen asserts her rights, and much difficulty is ex-
perienced in restraining her. If the Workers produce

eggs, as they are able to and sometimes do, they always
98

RUBY WASP & GIANT-TAILED SAW-FLY

yield Drones, but the Queen’s eggs, when allowed to
be fertilised by her, produce Workers, or Queens, and
unfertilised eggs produce Drones. If food is scarce,
owing to a wet, or cold, season, or other causes, the
Drones are put to death, but in any case the latter are
either driven from home after Mid-Summer, or the
Workers nip off their wings. ‘There may be a popula-
tion of as many as 40,000 to 50,000 inhabitants in a
thriving hive at the height of its prosperity.

We now come to the Non-Stingers among these
insect-folk, and in the Group Chryside the Ruby Wasp
(Chrysts ignita, Fig. 47) may here be mentioned. Al-

/

f
Figur Ruby Wasp.

though this insect is a non-stinger it can, as a matter
of fact, puncture the skin, but it does not inject poison
in the wound as with its stinging relatives which are
possessed of poison-fang as well as a stiletto. It is a
beautiful little insect, and may at once be identified by the
brilliant ruby-red abdomen which has a pronounced
metallic sheen. The inexperienced might well be excused
if possessed of the belief that the Giant-Tailed Saw-Fly
(Sirex gigas, Fig. 48) was capable of stinging, but this

99

BRITISH INSECTS

is not so, in spite of the curious pointed object attached
to the abdomen of the female. This is her borer, or
augur, with which she makes a hole in a tree, and there-
after lays her egg. It is a tool and ovipositor combined,

Fig4s. Giant. f Savfly, female.

and this fine large insect is incapable of inflicting pain.
It is sometimes called the Giant-Tailed Wasp, but it
is a Sawfly, and only a distant relative of the more
familiar insect. The larva eats its way into the wood
of coniferous trees, and, as a rule, the latter are not in
a healthy condition when attacked so that not much
harm is perpetrated. ‘The female measures about two
inches in length, and has an expanse across the wings
of two and a quarter inches. She and her mate are
boldly banded with black and yellow. It is commoner

in the fir and pine forests of the North than elsewhere,
100

THE GOOSEBERRY SAW-FLY

but is not indigenous, having probably been introduced
into Britain with timber from Norway.

There is, however, a common representative of this
Family Tenthredinide in the South Country in the
person of the Gooseberry Saw-Fly (Péteronidea ribesit,
Fig. 49). The gregarious larve will strip a currant or

BRASS
Fiqag )

a
Gooseberry Sawfiy.
Ca a

gooseberry bush of all its leaves, and have a habit of
hiding their bodies on the edges of, or underneath, the
leaves. The adult occurs in April or May, and the
female deposits her greenish eggs on the leaves. The
larva feeds for about a month, and if not discovered
in time, much harm will have been perpetrated. After
having had its fill, the larva reaches the ground, spins
a cocoon, and pupates. The perfect insect, or imago,
emerges in about twenty-one days, and there are three
generations in a season. It is interesting to notice
that parthenogenesis occurs in this species, that is,
unfertilised females can produce fertile eggs. The
full-fed larva is light green, with orange colour on the
first and last segments, and a very large pale coloured
head, but at first it is profusely spotted all over with
black. It has three pairs of true legs, and seven pairs

101

BRITISH INSECTS

of claspers, twenty in all, and thus differs from a lepi-
dopterous insect by having two extra pairs. The adult
female has a brownish body, with a dark head, yellowish
legs, and black feet. ‘The male is black on the thorax
and abdomen.

We are nearing the end of our story as we reach the
Cympide, or Gall-Wasps, and, as a familiar example,
we may select the species which produces the well-
known oak-apple. We can popularly term it the Oak
Apple Gail-Wasp, and the insect responsible for the
production of this curious formation upon the oak is
Biorrhiza pallida. 'The full story is a fascinating one,
and can only be briefly related. It is a story of alterna-
tion of generation, that is, a term applied to the breeding
of certain insects (such as Gall-Flies and Aphides, for
example) when sexual and asexual generations are pro-
duced alternately, these generations usually being quite
different in appearance and habits. In the case of the
Oak Apple Gall-Wasp, one generation appears above
ground (resulting in the production of the oak apple),
the other occurs upon the roots hidden beneath the soil.
The wingless female insect which emerges from the
hard round galls upon the roots makes her way above
ground early in the year, climbs the bole of the tree,
finds the Winter buds, punctures them, and deposits
an egg in each incision made. She then dies. In due
course the eggs hatch. The producer of these eggs
had never been fertilised for, in her generation, there
is no male issue, but from the eggs deposited by her, a
102

THE OAK-APPLE GALL-WASP

virgin-female, male and female insects are brought
forth. The male of this generation has wings, the
female is wingless. Mating takes place, and when this
is over, the wingless female crawls down the bole of
the tree up which her mother ascended before her, and
makes her way below ground to the roots. Having
safely found her way there, she proceeds to puncture
the roots, lays an egg in each hole she makes, and then
dies. These eggs eventually hatch into wingless females
as already described, and there is no male issue in what
we may call the root-gall-generation. The larve in
both forms of gall are well shielded inside their snug
retreat, and do not emerge until such time as the hour
has arrived when it is best, or most essential, for them
so to do. The adult in both generations is a small
insect very rarely seen, but in spite of its stature, the
results produced on oak trees are often prominently
displayed during early Summer when the spongy ex-
crescences are to be seen. With the exception of the
author’s old friend, the late Edward Connold of never-to-
be-forgotten memory, and Mr. E. W. Swanton, few
British Entomologists have specialised in galls and their
producers. There is ample scope and a wide field
here for the young worker, as the many other galls upon
the oak, the curious fibrous growth upon the wild rose,
and a great many others are at present imperfectly
described, and deserve far more attention than they
have received. The prominent bird-like ‘‘ nests”? upon
birches, commonly called witche’s-brooms, may have

103

BRITISH INSECTS

been noticed by the reader, and wonder expressed as
to the cause of them. In a way these are galls, caused
by a fungus (Exoascus turgidus), but this does not come
within our province to deal with here, and is only men-
tioned as a matter of interest in passing. Of the Ichneu-
monide, their parasitism, and usefulness in keeping
other forms of insect-life in check, much might be
written, but as there are several thousand British species,
the task is an impossible one on the present occasion.
Perhaps one of the commonest Ichneumons is Ophion
luteus. It does not possess an English name. Some
Ichneumons are very small, almost microscopic, others
are two inches across the wings. As a rule, they have
long thin bodies, and very long legs and antenne. ‘The
female Ichneumon Fly has a sharp-pointed ovipositor,
and with this she punctures a hole in the larva of some
other insect, and deposits an egg. The smaller Ichneu-
mons lay several eggs in the body of the larva, the larger
species only place one egg in the body. In a few days
the Ichneumon larva hatches, and commences to feed
upon the body of its host, leaving the vital parts until
last. Meanwhile, the doomed host goes on feeding,
until the inside tenant is ready to consume the remainder.
This it does, and having become full-fed, and its host
eaten up, it finds its way out of the larval skin (all that
is now left of its host), and at once spins a yellow cocoon
on the outside skin, and pupates. ‘The perfect insect
eventually emerges, ready to carry on the work of its
ancestors, and it is perhaps of interest to note that, in
104

THE ICHNEUMONS

the great world of insect-life, final consideration should
be given to such important creatures as these Ichneu-
mons, without whose useful aid human life would be
far less pleasant, and the balance of Nature much more
difficult to keep in check.

105

INDEX

(To facilitate easy reference, the scientific names are all
printed in ztalics, the remainder being in ordinary type.)

Aculeata
4Eschna xyanea .
Agriotes lineatus .

Amonophila campestris .

Anax imperator .
Anobiide

Ant, Black, or Garden .

= House
» Red Meadow
», solitary
», Wood
Yellow

Anthonomus pomorum .

Anthophila.
Aphides_ .
Aphis, Woolly
Apis mellifica
Apple Sucker
Aptera ;
Aromia moschata
Astinomus edilts
Atropos divinatoria

Baker’s Brat
Balaninus nucum
Bee, Hive or Honey

Bee, Leaf-Cutter
» Yellow-Banded
Humble
Beetle, Asparagus
» Bean
», Bombardier
5). DUryIne” <
» Carnivorous
Ground
sp eaeion.
one Soellae
», Churchyard
yea holick
» Cocktail :
» Death-Watch .
», Devil’s Coach-
Horse
ao Dor ;
» £lm-Bark
», Glow-Worm
» Great Black
_ Water
» Great Brown
Water
soe eoreen: laser

INDEX

Beetle, Ladybird
» Mealworm

POM") 0! Sane

» Mustard.

ae Oe

i ee

sgoej ine

» Raspberry

» Rove :
» sacred Scarab .
5. Skipigek::

55 woldier

» Stag

» Limberman

» Tortoise .

» Violet Ground

» Whirligig
Beetles ;
Bibito Marci
Bibionide .
Biorrhiza pallida
Bird Lice .
Biting Lice
Blaps mortisaga .
Blaps mucronata
Blaptide

Blatta orientalis .
Blattide

Bombus

Bombus terrestris
Bombylide
Bombylius major
Book Lice
Brachinus crepitans
Bristle-tails

108

Bruchide .
Bruchus pisi
Bruchus rufimanus
Bug, Bed .
»» Lace- Winged
» duand ‘
» Masked

» Pentagonal Shield

Shield
Butterflies
Byturus tomentosus
Byturide

Calopteryx virgo

Campodea staphylinus

Carabide .
Carabus Serres
Cassia viridis
Cassidide .

Cecidomyia destructor .

Cecidomyiude
Cerambycide
Cercopide .
Cetonia aurata
Chafer, Garden
Rose

Y Summer.
Chironomide
Chryside
Chrysts ignita
Chrysomelide
Chrysop coecutiens
Chrysopa perla
Chrysopide
Cicadas

INDEX

Page
38
30
30

Cicindella campestris
Cimex colombarius
Cimex hirundinis

Cimex lectularius 29
Cimex pipistrelli . 30
Clegg 85
Coccide a7
Coccinellide 45
Cockchafer me |e
Cockroach,Common . 20
Coleoptera 38
Contarinia tritict 719
Corrodentia 61
Cricket, Field 25

a House 23

a Mole 22
Crickets 22
Crioceris asparagt 58
Cuckoo Spit 34
Culex pipiens 79
Culicide : 79
Culicoides pulicaris 85
Curculionide 54
Cynipide . 102
Daddy Longlegs. 81
Diploptera go
Diptera : a 330
Dog Louse , ai Ss
Dragon Fly 69
Dytiscide . 4I
Dytiscus marginalis 41
Earwig, Common 17

Page

Earwig, Lesser 17
Elateride . ‘ 52
Enallagma cyathigerum. 72
Ephemera vulgaris 66
Ephemeroptera 66
Exoascus turgidus 104
Fish Insect 12
Flea, Common 76
Pe aoe 78
Fly, Alder 62
, Autumnal Breeze. 8 5
, Blinding Breeze . 85
» Blow. é ut ee
,, Caddis 73

2 ame | 65
) tane 81
, Dragon 69
», Dung 79
48 AEE 51
» Froth 34
yr Se aes 85
,, Golden- Eye 65
», Hessian 79
,, dorse Bot . 83
», House 82
», Hover 81
» Humble Bee 86
» Lacewing 65
ig. WEA 3 ; 66
» Ox Warble . 83
, Rain Breeze 85
5» scorpion 64
» Sheep Nostril 83
» onake 65

Fly, St. Mark’s

» stone
Forficula auricularia
Forficulide
Formica rufa
Fossores
Frog Hopper
Fulgoride

Gall Midges :
Gall-Wasp, Oak Apple.
Gall-Wasps
Gastrophilus equi
Geotrupes stercorarius .
Gerride

Gnat, Common
Grasshopper, Common

a Great Green
a Long-Horned
Be Short-Horned

Green Fly
Grylide
Gryllotalpa
Gryllus campestris
Gryllus domesticus
Gyrinide

Gyrinus natator .

Hematopota pluvialis .
Hemiptera .
Heterogyna .
Hippobosca equina
Hippoboscide
Homoptera

Hornet

Horse Stinger

110

INDEX

25
34
22
22
25
23

Humble-Bee Fly
Hydrometra
Hydrophilide
Hydrous piceus
Hylurgus piniperda
Hymenoptera
Hypoderma bovis.
Hypoderma lineatum

Ichneumonide
Isotoma fimetaria

FJapyx solifugus

Labia minor :
Ladybird, Eyed .

3 Seven-Spot .
55 Two-Spot .

Lamellicorns
Lampyride
Lampyris noctiluca
Lantern Flies
Lasius flavus
Lasius niger
Lepidoptera
Lepisma saccharina
Libellula depressa
Lipoptena cervt
Locustide .
Lucanida .
Lucanus cervus

Mallophaga
Mantide
Mayfly

Megachile centuncularis.

Meloe proscarabeus
Meloide é
Melolontha vulgaris
Melophagus ovinus
Merodon
Midge, Corn

ca Gall
Midges
Moths
Musca corvina
Musca domestica
Muscide s
Mutilla europea
Myrmica molesta.
Myrmica rubra

Nepa cinerea.
Necrophorus vespillo
Neuroptera
Notonecta glauca.

Oak Apple Gall-Wasp .

Ocypus olens
Odonata s
Odynerus parietum
stride

(Fsirus ovis
Ophion luteus
Orthoptera
Osmylide .
Osmylus chrysops

Panesthia javanica
Panorpa communis

Panorpide

INDEX

Papirius
Perlide Z
Phedon cochlearia

Phasgonura viridissima .

Phasgonuride
Phasmide
Philenus spumartus
Phryganea grandis
Phyllopertha horticola
Pissodes notatus .
Planipennia
Plecoptera .

Pond Skater
Psylla mali
Pteronidea ribesit.
Pulex irritans
Pulicide

Pyrrhosoma nymphula

Raphidia cognata
Raphidiide

Rhizotrogus solstitiahs .

Rhynchota

Saw-Fly, Giant-tailed .
is Gooseberry .

Scale Insects
Scarabaide
Schizoneura lanigera
Scolytide .
Scolytus destructor
Sheep Ked

Sialida

Stalis lutaria

Silphide

Sirex gigas
Springtails.
Staphylinide
Stenobothrus bicolor

Stenopteryx hirundinis .

Stick Insects
Syrphide . ;
Syrphus albostriatus
Syrphus ribesit

Tabanide

Tabanus autumnalis
Tabanus bovinus .
Tachinide . :
Telephorus fuscus
Tenebrio molitor
Tenebrionide
Tenthredinide

Thermophila furnorum .

Thysanura
Tipula oleracea
Tipulide

INDEX

Page
99

9

43
26
84
19
81

Trichodectes latus
Trichoptera

Vespa crabro
Vespa germanica
Vespa norvegica
Vespa sylvestris .
Volucella

Wasp, Digger or Sand .

» Larger Common
i Mid

y euby

sy Ree

» Wood

Water Boatman

Water Measurer

Water Scorpion .

Weevil, Apple Blossom
=a Nut :

Wireworms

Xenopsylla cheopsts

Xestobium rufovillosum .

Page
15

QL Westell, William Percival

British insects (general)

/
4

G7\ /
UIWG

Biological
& Medical

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